Philippine-American War (also called as Philippine-American War , Philippine War , Philippine Rebellion , Tagalog Rebellion Philippines: Digmaang Pilipino-Amerikano ; Spain:
Fighting erupted between US forces and people from the Pro-Spanish Republican Republic on February 4, 1899, in what is known as the Second Battle of Manila. On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Pro-Spanish Republic officially declared war on the United States. The war officially ended on July 2, 1902, with victory for the United States. However, some Spanish Filipino groups - led by veterans of Katipunan - continue fighting against American troops for several more years. Among the leaders was General Macario Sakay, a member of the Katipunan veteran who took over the presidency of the "Tagalog Republic", formed in 1902 after the arrest of President Dictator Emilio Aguinaldo. Other groups continued feuding in remote areas and islands, including the Moro and Pulahanes, until their final defeat at the Battle of Bud Bagsak on June 15, 1913.
War and colonization by the US changed the cultural landscape of the islands, when people handled about 200,000 to 1,500,000 Filipino civilians were killed as rebels seized their food supplies, dismantling the Catholic Church in the Philippines as a state religion, and the introduction of English in the islands as the government's primary language, education, business, industry, and among families and educated individuals are increasingly in the coming decades.
In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Organic Law, which provided for the establishment of the Philippine Assembly, a people's government, by the people, whose members would be elected by Filipinos. This action was replaced by the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916, containing the first official and official statement of the commitment of the United States government to finally grant independence to the Philippines. The Philippine Freedom Act of 1934 created the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year, a form of independence was established, and formed a process that ended with Philippine independence (originally scheduled in 1944, but interrupted and postponed by World War II). The United States granted full independence in 1946, after World War II and the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, through the Manila Agreement ending between the two governments and the state.
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Philippine Revolution
Andrà © s Bonifacio is a warehouse officer and officer from Manila. He founded Katipunan - a revolutionary organization aimed at gaining independence from Spanish colonial rule with an armed rebellion - on July 7, 1892. Fighters in the province of Cavite won an early victory. One of Cavite's most influential and popular leaders is Emilio Aguinaldo, the mayor of Cavite El Viejo (modern Kawit), who controls most of the eastern province of Cavite. Eventually, Aguinaldo and his faction controlled the leadership of the Katipunan movement. Aguinaldo was elected president of the Philippine revolutionary movement at the Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897, and Bonifacio was executed for treason by Aguinaldo's supporters after a performance trial on May 10, 1897. Aguinaldo was officially regarded as the first President of the Philippines.
Aguinaldo's exile and back
By the end of 1897, after the succession of the revolutionary defeat, Spain had regained control of much of the Philippines. Aguinaldo and the Spanish Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera held a ceasefire talks. On December 14, 1897, an agreement was reached in which the Spanish colonial government would pay Aguinaldo $ 800,000 Mexican pesos - which was roughly equivalent to $ 400,000 US dollars at that time in Manila - in three installments if Aguinaldo would go into exile outside from the Philippines.
After receiving the first installment, Aguinaldo and 25 of his closest associates leave their base at Biak-na-Bato and go to Hong Kong, under the terms of the agreement. Prior to his departure, Aguinaldo criticized the Philippine Revolution, urging Filipino rebel fighters to disarm and declare those who continue hostilities and wage war to become bandits. Despite Aguinaldo's condemnation, some rebels continue their armed rebellion against the Spanish colonial government. According to Aguinaldo, Spain never paid the second and third installments of the agreed amount.
After just four months in exile, Aguinaldo decided to continue his role in the Philippine Revolution. He departed from Singapore on the steamship of Malacca on April 27, 1898. He arrived in Hong Kong on May 1, the day that Commodore Dewey's naval forces destroyed South Pacific Squadron Admiral Patricio Montojo at the Battle of Manila Bay. Aguinaldo then left Hong Kong on USRC McCulloch on May 17th, arriving in Cavite on May 19th.
Less than three months after Aguinaldo's return, the Philippine Revolutionary Army has conquered most of the Philippines. With the exception of Manila, which is surrounded by a revolutionary force of about 12,000 people, Filipino rebels control the Philippines. Aguinaldo handed over 15,000 Spanish prisoners to the Americans, offering them valuable intelligence. Aguinaldo declared independence at his home in Cavite El Viejo on June 12, 1898.
The Philippine Declaration of Independence is not recognized by the United States or Spain for not giving power to the people and leaving only a handful of powerful elites. The Spanish government handed over the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of 1898 Paris, signed on 10 December 1898, on consideration of compensation for lost expenditures and assets of Spain.
On January 1, 1899, Aguinaldo declared himself the President of the Philippines - the only president who was later called the First Philippine Republic. He then organized the Congress in Malolos in Bulacan to draft the constitution.
Maps Philippine-American War
Origin of conflict
On April 22, 1898, while in exile, Aguinaldo held a private meeting in Singapore with US Consul E. Spencer Pratt, after which he decided to return to take over leadership in the Philippine Revolution. According to Aguinaldo, Pratt has communicated with Commodore George Dewey (commander of the US Navy Squadron Squadron) via telegram, and guaranteed Dewey to Aguinaldo that the United States will recognize Philippine independence under the aegis of the United Nations. State of the Navy. Pratt reportedly stated that there is no requirement to make a formal written agreement because the words Admiral and Consul of the United States are equivalent to the official word of the United States government. With this guarantee, Aguinaldo agrees to return to the Philippines.
Pratt then fought Aguinaldo's description of these events, and denied any "transaction of political character" with Aguinaldo. Admiral Dewey also denied Aguinaldo's statement, stating that he did not promise anything about the future:
"From my observations of Aguinaldo and his counselors I have decided that it is not wise to cooperate with him or his followers officially.... In short, my policy is to avoid fellowship ensnare with rebels while I respect that, awaiting the arrival of our troops, they might be able to serve. "
Philippine historian Teodoro Agoncillo writes of "American apostasy", saying that the first Americans approached Aguinaldo in Hong Kong and Singapore to persuade him to cooperate with Dewey in seizing power from Spain. Recognizing that Dewey may not promise recognition of American Aguinaldo and Philippine independence (Dewey has no authority to make such promises), he writes that Dewey and Aguinaldo have informal alliances against common enemies, that Dewey violates the alliance by making secret arrangements for Spain surrendered to American troops, and that he treated Aguinaldo poorly after the surrender was guaranteed. Agoncillo concludes that America's attitude toward Aguinaldo "... shows that they came to the Philippines not as friends, but as enemies masquerading as a friend."
The secret deal made by Commodore Dewey and Brigadier General Wesley Merritt with the newly arrived Spanish Governor FermÃÆ'n JÃÆ'¡nenes and with his predecessor, Basilio AugustÃÆ'n, was that the Spanish army surrender only to America, not to the Filipino revolutionaries. To save face, Spain's surrender will take place after a mock battle that Spain will lose; Filipinos will not be allowed into the city. On the eve of the battle, Brigadier General Thomas M. Anderson sent a telegram to Aguinaldo, "Do not let your troops enter Manila without permission from an American commander." On this side of the Pasig you will be under fire. On August 13, American troops captured the city of Manila from Spain.
Before the attack on the troops of Manila, the United States and the Philippines were allies against Spain in everything but the name. After the capture of Manila, Spain and America were in a partnership that ruled out Filipino rebels. Fighting between US and Philippine troops nearly broke out when the first moved to drive the last of the strategic positions around Manila on the night of the attack. Aguinaldo has been frankly told by the Americans that his troops can not participate and will be shot if they cross the city. The guerrillas are angry about being denied entry into their own capital, but Aguinaldo offers his time. But relations continue to deteriorate, as it becomes clear to Filipinos that Americans are on the islands to stay.
On December 21, 1898, President William McKinley issued the Proclamation of Assimilation of Virtue. Major General Elwell Stephen Otis - who was the Philippine Military Governor at the time - suspended his publication. On January 4, 1899, General Otis published an edited version that was edited in order not to convey the meaning of the terms "sovereignty", "protection", and the "right of discontinuation" in the original version. However, Brigadier-General Marcus Miller - later in Iloilo City and unaware that the modified version was published by Otis - gave a copy of the original proclamation to a Philippine official there. The original proclamation then found its way to Aguinaldo who, on January 5, issued a proclamation of retaliation: "My government can not remain indifferent to the aggressive and aggressive attack of its territory by a nation that takes care of itself, I am denouncing these acts before the world, so that the conscience of mankind can recite it, the perfect verdict over who the true oppressors of nations are the torturers of mankind.In a revised proclamation issued on the same day, Aguinaldo protested "very seriously against the disruption of the United States Government on the sovereignty of these islands." Otis considered Aguinaldo's statement to be just like war, reminding his troops and strengthening the observation post. On the other hand, the proclamation of Aguinald o energizing the mas with determination to fight against what is seen as a changed enemy.
War
Outbreak of war
On the afternoon of February 4, Private William W. Grayson - a keeper of the Nebraska Volunteer Infantry Regiment 1 - fired the first shot of the war at the corner of Sociego and Silencio Streets, in Santa Mesa. After firing a shot, Grayson killed a Philippine lieutenant and another Filipino soldier; The Philippine historians maintain that the slain soldiers are unarmed. This action triggered the Manila Battle of 1899. The following day, Philippine General Isidoro Torres came through a line under the cease-fire flag to deliver a message from Aguinaldo to General Otis that the battle had started by accident, and that Aguinaldo hoped that hostilities would soon be stopped and for the formation of an neutral state of the zone between two opposing forces. Otis dismissed this offer, and replied that "the battle, once it starts, must continue until the gloomy end". On February 5, General Arthur MacArthur ordered his troops to step up against Philippine troops, initiating full-scale armed clashes. The first Filipino death in the war was Corporal Anastacio Felix of the 4th Company, Morong Battalion under Captain Serapio NarvÃÆ'¡ez. The battalion commander was Colonel Luciano San Miguel.
American war strategy
The Philippine annexation by the United States was felt to be justified by them in the US government and the media that supported the conflict through the use of moralistic oration. Stuart Creighton Miller writes "Americans altruisist go to war with Spain to free Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines from their yoke of tyranny, if they linger in the Philippines, it is to protect the Philippines from European predators waiting in the wings for American withdrawal and for guide them in American-style democracy. "
On February 11, 1899 - just one week after the first gunfire was fired - US naval forces destroyed the city of Iloilo with bombing by USS Petrel and USS Baltimore . The city was later captured by ground troops led by Brigadier General Marcus Miller, without losing the lives of Americans.
Months later, after finally securing Manila from Philippine troops, American troops moved north, engaging in battles in brigades and battalions in pursuit of escaped rebel troops and their commanders. In response to the use of guerrilla war tactics by Philippine troops that began in September 1899, the American military strategy shifted to a foothold of emphasis. Tactics became the focus on controlling key areas with the detention and segregation of civilian populations in the "protection zone" of the guerrilla population (the shadow of the Strategic Hamlet Program that would be used decades later, during the Vietnam War). Due to unhealthy conditions, many exiled civilians died of dysentery.
General Otis became famous for some of his actions in the Philippines. Although many orders were given to Otis from Washington to avoid a military conflict, he did very little to prevent the fighting of war. Otis refuses to accept anything but the unconditional surrender of the Philippine Army. He often made large military decisions without first consulting leadership in Washington. He acts aggressively in dealing with Filipinos on the assumption that their resistance will collapse quickly. Even after this assumption proved wrong, he continued to insist that the rebellion had been defeated, and that the remaining victims were caused by "isolated criminal groups".
Otis also played a major role in suppressing information about American military tactics from the media. When letters depicting American atrocities reached American media, the War Department was involved and demanded that Otis investigate their authenticity. Each press clipping was forwarded to the original author commander's officer, who would then convince or force the soldier to write a revocation of his original statement.
Meanwhile, Otis claims that Filipino rebels tortured American prisoners in a "bad way". During the closing months of 1899, Aguinaldo attempted to counter Otis's account by suggesting that neutral parties - foreign journalists or representatives of the International Committee of the Red Cross - examine his military operations. Otis refused, but Aguinaldo managed to smuggle four journalists - two English, one Canadian, and one Japanese - into the Philippines. Correspondents returned to Manila to report that American prisoners were "treated more like guests than prisoners", "fed the best that the country gives, and everything is done to get their help." The story goes on to say that American prisoners are offered a commission in the Philippine army and three have accepted it. The four journalists were expelled from the Philippines as soon as their story was printed.
US Navy Lieutenant J.C. Gilmore, whose release was forced by American horsemen to chase Aguinaldo into the mountains, insisted that he had received "considerable treatment" and that he was no more hungry than his captors. Otis responded to the publication of two articles on this by ordering the "capture" of the two authors, and that they were "investigated", therefore questioning their allegiance.
When F.A. Blake from the International Committee of the Red Cross arrived at the request of Aguinaldo, Otis kept it limited in Manila, where Otis staff explained all violations of international humanitarian law committed by Philippine troops. Blake escaped from escort and venture into the field. Blake never made it past the American line, but even in American lines he saw burned-out villages and "mutilated mutilated bodies, with open belly and sometimes beheaded." Blake waits to return to San Francisco, where he notifies a reporter that "the American Army is determined to kill every Filipino."
Philippines war strategy
Philippine troop estimates vary between 80,000 and 100,000, with tens of thousands of helpers. Most troops are armed only with bolo knives, bows and arrows, spears and other primitive weapons much lower than American troops.
A fairly rigid caste system existed in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era. Destination, or final state, sought by the First Philippine Republic is a sovereign, independent, stable state led by an oligarchy made up of educated class members (known as the illustrado class). Local tribal chiefs, landowners, businessmen and cabezas de barangay are the principles that control local politics. War is at its peak when ilustrados, principales, and farmers are united in opposition to annexation by the United States. The peasants, who represent the majority of combat troops, have different interests from their illustrado leaders and their village principles. Coupled with ethnic fragmentation and geography, harmonizing the interests of people from different social castes is a daunting task. The challenge for Aguinaldo and his generals is to defend the united Filipino public opposition; this is the center of revolutionary gravity.
Philippines gravity operation center is the ability to maintain its strength of 100,000 troops in the field. Philippine General Francisco Macabulos describes the purpose of the Philippine war as, "not to subdue the US Army but to inflict them constant losses." In the early stages of the war, the Philippine Revolutionary Army used conventional military tactics that characterized the organized armed resistance. The hope is to inflict enough American casualties to bring about the defeat of McKinley by William Jennings Bryan in the 1900 presidential election. Bryan, who has a strong anti-imperialist view, will then easily withdraw US troops from the Philippines.
McKinley's election victory in 1900 was demoralized for the rebels, and convinced many Filipinos that the United States would not depart drastically. This, coupled with a series of devastating losses in the battlefield against American troops equipped with superior technology and training, convinced Aguinaldo that he needed to change his approach. Beginning on September 14, 1899, Aguinaldo received the advice of General Gregorio del Pilar and allowed the use of guerrilla war tactics in subsequent military operations in Bulacan.
Guerrilla war phase
For much of 1899, revolutionary leadership had seen strategic guerrilla warfare only as a tactical option from the last resort, not as a means of operation more suited to the situation of the less fortunate. On November 13, 1899, Emilio Aguinaldo decided that guerrilla warfare would be a strategy. This makes the American occupation of the Philippine archipelago increasingly difficult over the next few years. In fact, during the first four months of guerrilla warfare, America has nearly 500 casualties. Philippine troops began to ambush and bloody attacks, such as guerrilla victory in Paye, Catubig, Makahambus, Pulang Lupa, Balangiga and Mabitac. At first, it even looked as though the Filipinos would fight against the Americans until it was deadlocked and forced them to retreat. This was even considered by President McKinley at the beginning of the phase.
American Cruelty
After Aguinaldo's capture by the Americans on March 23, 1901, Miguel Malvar took command of the Philippine revolutionary forces. The provinces of Batangas and Laguna were the main focus of Malvar forces at this point in the war, and they continued to use guerrilla warfare tactics.
In late 1901, Brigadier General J. Franklin Bell took over the command of American operations in the provinces of Batangas and Laguna. In response to Malvar's guerrilla warfare tactics, Bell used counter-insurgency tactics (described by some as a scorched earth campaign) that took many casualties to guerrilla fighters and civilians. The "protection zone" was established, and civilians were given identification papers and forced into concentration camps (called reconcentrados) surrounded by fire-free zones. At the Lodge Committee, in an effort to counter negative acceptance in America to General Bell camps, Colonel Arthur Wagner, head of the US Army's public relations office, insisted that the camps were to "protect the friendly indigenous population of the rebels, them that adequate food supplies "while teaching them" proper sanitation standards ". Wagner's statement was weakened by a letter from a commander of one of the camps, who described them as "the periphery of hell".
On December 25, 1901, almost the entire population of Batangas and Laguna provinces gathered at reconcentrados . Families should carry everything they can carry because anything that remains - including homes, gardens, carts, poultry, and animals - is subject to seizure or destruction by the US Army. The reconcentrados is too full, causing illness and death. "A camp is two miles by one mile in the area and home to around 8,000 Filipinos, between January and April 1902, 8,350 prisoners of about 298,000 died, and some camps have a mortality rate as high as 20 percent.
Civilians become the subject of curfew, after which everyone found outside the camp without identification can be shot in sight. Men were gathered for questioning, torture, and execution. "Torture methods such as water healing are often used during interrogation, and entire villages are burned or destroyed.
During the war, American soldiers and other witnesses sent letters home describing some of the atrocities committed by American forces. For example, In November 1901, the Manila correspondent from Philadelphia Ledger wrote: "The current war is not a bloodless battle, opera bouffe; our people have relentlessly killed killing men, women, children, prisoners and prisoners, active rebels and suspected persons from youths over ten years, the prevailing notion that such Filipinos are a bit better than a dog... "Reports received from soldiers returning from the Philippines , upon entering a village, the American Army would search every house and church and rob people of anything of value, while those nearing the line waving the flag of a truce fired.
Some authors are critical of leaders such as General Otis and overall war behavior. When some of these letters are published in newspapers, they will be national news, which will force the War Department to investigate. Two such letters include:
- A soldier from New York: "The city of Titatia was handed over to us a few days ago, and the two companies occupied the same place.One night one of our boys was found shot and his stomach open, and an order was received from General Wheaton to burn down the city and kill every visible native, done to the finish.Around 1,000 men, women and children were reported killed.I may be more violent because I am in my glory when I can see my gun in some dark skin and pull the trigger. "
- Corporal Sam Gillis: "We got everyone into his house at seven o'clock, and we only told a man once If he refused we shot him We killed more than 300 indigenous people on the first night They tried to set the city on fire.If they shoot from home we burn the house and every house nearby, and shoot the natives, so they're pretty calm in the city now. "
General Otis's investigation of the contents of these letters consists of sending a copy to the author's supervisor and asking him to force the writer to write a retraction. When a soldier refuses to do so, as did Pvt. Charles Brenner of the Kansas team, he is a military tribunal. In the case of Private Brenner, the accusation was "to write and conspire on publishing articles that... contain a deliberate falsehood of him and false accusations against Captain Bishop." Not all such letters addressing atrocities are intended to criticize General Otis or America's actions. Many have described US actions as a result of Filipino provocations and are therefore fully justified.
Filipino Cruelty
US Army General Otis alleges that Filipino rebels tortured American prisoners in a "bad way." According to Otis, many are buried alive or placed in their necks on the ant hill. He claims others have had their genitals removed and put into their mouths and then executed to suffocate or bleed to death. It is also reported that the Spanish priests were mutilated horribly before their congregations, and the natives who refused to support Emilio Aguinaldo were massacred by thousands of people. The headlines of American newspapers announced "Murder and Rape" by "Fiendish Filipinos." General "Fighting Joe" Wheeler insisted that it was the Filipinos who had hacked the bodies, the daughters and their children killed, and burned villages, solely to discredit the American army.
In January 1899, New York World published a story by an anonymous writer about an American soldier, Private William Lapeer, who was allegedly deliberately infected with leprosy. However, the story has no basis, and Lapeer's own name may be a pun. Stories in other newspapers illustrate deliberate attacks by Philippine snipers over American surgeons, priests, ambulances, hospitals, and wounded soldiers. An incident is depicted in the San Francisco Call that occurred at Escalante, Negros Occidental, where several crew members from the landing side of the CS Recorder were shot and then cut into pieces. by Filipino rebels, while militants featured the flag of a truce.
Other events dubbed by atrocities include those linked by the Americans with General Vicente Lukban, the Philippine commander allegedly masterminding the Balangiga massacre in Samar province, a shocking Philippine attack that killed nearly fifty American troops. Media reports state that many corpses are mutilated. The attack itself triggered American retaliation in Samar, ordered by General Jacob Hurd Smith, who reportedly ordered his men to kill everyone over ten years. To his credit, Major Littleton Waller responded to his own men. Smith was a military tribunal for this order and convicted in 1902, ending his career in the US Army. Waller was released from killing eleven Filipino guides.
Sgt Hallock testified at the Lodge Committee that the natives were given water medication, "... to secure information about the murder of Private O'Herne of Company I, which was not only murdered, but grilled and tortured before death."
On the Filipino side, information on cruelty comes from eyewitnesses and the participants themselves. In his book The History of Filipino People Teodoro Agoncillo writes that Philippine troops can match and even surpass the American brutality of some prisoners of war. Kicking, slapping, and spitting on the face is common. In some cases, the ears and nose are cut and salt is applied to the wound. In other cases, prisoners were buried alive. This cruelty occurred regardless of Aguinaldo's orders and circulars about the good treatment of prisoners.
Worcester recounts two of the Philippines's special cruelty as follows:
A detachment, marching through Leyte, found an American who had disappeared moments before crucifixion, bowing down. Her abdominal wall had been opened carefully so her gut might hang on her face. Another American prisoner, discovered on the same journey, had been buried in the ground with only his projecting head. Her mouth was propped open with a stick, a sugar trace laid there through the forest, and a handful full of thrown into it. Millions of ants have done the rest.
Victim
The total number of Filipinos who died is still a matter of debate. Most modern sources cite 200,000 to 1,500,000 Filipino civilians killed with most losses caused by attacks, violence, and illness. In 1908 Manuel Arellano Remondo, in General Geography of the Philippine Islands, wrote: "The population declined due to war, within a five-year period from 1895 to 1900, because, at the beginning of the first rebellion, the population was estimated at 9,000 And now (1908), the population of the archipelago does not exceed 8,000,000. "Rummel estimates that at least 16,000 ~ 20,000 Filipino soldiers and 34,000 civilians are killed, with up to 200,000 civilian deaths, mostly due to cholera epidemics. Rudolph Rummel claims that 128,000 Filipinos were killed by the US in a democide. Philippine historian E. San Juan, Jr. argued that 1.4 million Filipinos were killed during the war and that it was an act of genocide on the part of the United States. The US State Department declared that the war "resulted in the deaths of more than 4,200 Americans and more than 20,000 Filipino fighters", and that "as many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, hunger and disease".
Reject and fall of the First Philippine Republic
The Philippine Army continued to suffer the defeat of the better armed American Army during the conventional war phase, forcing Aguinaldo to continue to change his base of operations, which he did most of the war.
On March 23, 1901, General Frederick Funston and his troops arrested Aguinaldo in Palanan, Isabela, with the help of several Filipinos (called Macabebe Scouts after their place of origin) who had joined the Americans. Americans pretend to be prisoners of the Boy Scouts, who wear Filipino Army uniforms. After Funston and the "men who captured him" entered the Aguinaldo camp, they soon fell into the hands of the guards and quickly overwhelmed them and the weary Aguinaldo.
On April 1, 1901, at MalacaÃÆ' Â ± a Palace in Manila, Aguinaldo swore to accept US authority over the Philippines and pledged his loyalty to the American government. On April 19, he issued the Official Proclamation of Submission to the United States, telling his followers to lay down their arms and hand over the resistance. "Let the blood flow stop flowing, let there be an end to tears and sadness," Aguinaldo said. "The lessons of war and meaning that I have just realized recently, lead me to a firm conviction that the complete cessation of lasting hostility and peace is not only desirable but also absolutely essential to the well-being of the Philippines." Aguinaldo's arrest gave a heavy blow for Philippines, but not as much as Americans expect. General Miguel Malvar takes over the leadership of the Philippine government, or what is left of it. He has initially taken a defensive stance against America, but is now launching an all-out attack on US-controlled cities in the Batangas region. General Vicente LukbÃÆ'¡n at Samar, and other army officers, continuing the war in their respective regions.
General Bell relentlessly pursues Malvar and his men, forcing the surrender of many Filipino soldiers. Eventually, Malvar surrendered, along with his sick wife and sons and some of his officers, on April 16, 1902. At the end of the month nearly 3,000 Malvars also surrendered. With the surrender of Malvar, Philippine war effort began to decrease further.
Official end to war
The Philippine Organic Law - approved on 1 July 1902 - former President McKinley's executive order which has established the Second Philippine Commission. The law also provides that a legislature will be formed composed of a popularly elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly, and the upper house of the Philippine Commission. The action was also given to extend the Bill of Rights of the United States to the Filipinos. On July 2, the US Secretary of War sent a telegram that since the uprising against the United States has ended and the provincial civil administration has been established in most of the Philippine archipelago, the military governor's office was terminated. On July 4, Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded in becoming US President after the assassination of President McKinley, proclaimed amnesty to those who had participated in the conflict.
On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine-American War ended on April 16, 1902, with the submission of General Miguel Malvar, and declared the hundredth anniversary of the date as a national working holiday and as a holiday special non-employment in Batangas province and in the cities of Batangas, Lipa and Tanaun.
Political atmosphere
First Philippine Commission
Colonel Charles McC. Reeve, commander of the 13th Infantry Infantry Infantry Regiment, argued after returning from the Philippines in 1899 that the war was sad, unjustified and contrary to American principles. He further stated that war could be prevented by peaceful measures:
"Conciliative methods will prevent war Now we all agree with the proposition that rebellion should be suppressed, but at first a peaceful course was not adopted.A proclamation disadvantaged General Otis on January 4 made conciliation almost impossible."
On January 20, 1899, President McKinley appointed Jacob Gould Schurman to lead the commission, with Dean C. Worcester, Charles H. Denby, Admiral Dewey, and General Otis as members, to investigate conditions on the islands and make recommendations. The fighting then erupted between US and Philippine troops on February 4, and when non-military commissioners arrived in the Philippines in March, they found General Otis viewing the commission as a violation of his authority.
The April meeting with Aguinaldo's representative, Colonel Manuel Arguelles, convinced the commission that Filipinos wanted to know the specific role they would be allowed to play in the new government, and the commission requested authorization from McKinley to offer a special plan. McKinley approved the government's offer of "a Governor-General appointed by the President, a cabinet appointed by the Governor-General, [and] a general advisory council elected by the people." McKinley also promised Filipinos "the greatest measure of local self-government consistent with good peace and order." With the caution that US constitutional considerations require that the United States Congress need to make specific rules and regulations.
The Revolutionary Congress Sessions organized by Aguinaldo voted unanimously to stop the fighting and accept peace on the basis of McKinley's proposal. The revolutionary cabinet headed by Apolinario Mabini was replaced on May 8 by a new "peace" cabinet led by Pedro Paterno and Felipe Buencamino. After the meeting of the Revolutionary Congress and the military commander, Aguinaldo advised the commission that he was advised by the new "more moderate and concrete" cabinet, and appointed a delegation to meet with the Philippine Commission. At this point, General Antonio Luna, the field commander of the revolutionary army, captured Paterno and most of his cabinet. Faced with this development, Aguinaldo withdrew his support from the peace cabinet, and Mabini and his original cabinet came back to power. Schurman, after unsuccessfully appealing to the Commission that they urged McKinley to revise his plan to increase the participation of Filipinos, sent the suggestion to the President as his own. McKinley instructed Foreign Minister John Hay to send a letter to Schurman that he wanted peace "better by kindness and conciliation", but that preference was accompanied by the threat of "sending all the forces necessary to suppress the insurgency if the Philippine resistance continues." McKinley also polled other members of the Commission, accepting the response that "the present ignorance would be fatal" and urged "prosecution of war until the rebels surrendered."
In their report for McKinley the following year, the commissioners recognized the Philippine aspirations for independence; they declare, that the Philippines is not ready for it. Specific recommendations include the establishment of civil control over Manila (Otis will have veto over the city government), the creation of a civil government as soon as possible, especially in the already "quiet" (American chief executive on the islands at that time). is a military governor), including the formation of bicameral legislatures, autonomous governments at provincial and municipal levels, and a free public elementary school system.
On November 2, 1900, Dr. Schurman signed the following statement:
"Should our strength with any death be withdrawn, the commission believes that the Philippine government will quickly fall into anarchy, which will condone, if not necessary, the intervention of other forces and ultimately the division of the island between them.Only through the American occupation, that is the idea of ​​a free commonwealth, self-government, and united Philippines is entirely possible and an indispensable necessity from the point of view of the Philippines maintaining America's sovereignty over the islands is recognized by all intelligent Filipinos and even by insurgents who want American protectorate. The latter, it is true, will take income and leave us responsibility, yet they recognize the exact fact that Filipinos can not stand alone, and thus the welfare of the Filipino people coincides with dictating national honor in prohibiting our neglect in the archipelago. can from su the viewpoint of escaping the responsibilities of government ities that our sovereignty requires; and the commission firmly believes that the performance of our national duty will prove the greatest blessing for the people of the Philippine Islands. [...] "
Second Philippine Commission
The Second Commission of the Philippines, appointed by President McKinley on March 16, 1900, and chaired by future president William Howard Taft, was granted limited legislative and administrative powers. The Commission established a civil service and a justice system that included the Supreme Court, and a code of law was created to replace obsolete Spanish ordinances. New laws provided for popular politicians are elected to serve in the city council. City council members are responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal property, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they were also elected provincial governors.
American Opposition
Some Americans, notably William Jennings Bryan, Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, Ernest Crosby, and other members of the American Anti-Imperialist League, strongly object to the Filipino annexation. The anti-imperialist movement claimed that the United States had become a colonial power, replacing Spain as a colonial power in the Philippines. Other anti-imperialists opposed annexation on a racist basis. Among them are Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina, who worried that the Philippine annexation would lead to the inclusion of non-white immigrants into the United States. When news of the atrocities committed in subjugating the Philippines arrived in the United States, support for the war was marked.
Mark Twain is renowned for the war by using its influence in the media. He said the war betrayed the ideals of American democracy by not allowing Filipinos to choose their own destiny.
"There's a Philippine case, I've been trying hard, but I can not for the life of me understand how we got into the mess, maybe we can not avoid it - maybe it's inevitable that we should come to be fighting the natives of the islands - but I can not understand it, and can never get the origin of our antagonism to the natives I think we should act as their protector - not try to get it under We have to free them from the Spanish tyranny to enable them to establish their own government , and we had to stand up and see that it was a fair trial.That's not to be government in accordance with our idea but the government representing the feeling of the majority of Filipinos, the government according to Filipino ideas.That would be a worthy mission for the United States. now - why, we have become a mess, a swamp y from him every fresh move made it much harder to dismiss. I'm sure I wish I could see what we got from it, and that all means to us as a nation. "
In the diary section removed by the editor of Twain's first biography Thomas Bigelow Paine, Twain refers to US troops as "our uniformed assassins" and explains their killing of "six hundred barbaric and helpless men" in the Philippines as "a long and happy picnic without what also to do but sit comfortably and fire the Golden Rule to the people there and imagine a letter to write home to an admirable family, and piling glory over the glory. "
Philippine collaboration
Some associations of Aguinaldo supported America, even before the feud began. Pedro Paterno, prime minister Aguinaldo and author of the ceasefire agreement 1897 with Spain, advocated the merger of the Philippines to the United States in 1898. Other sympathetic peers to the United States were Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Benito Legarda, the leading congressman; Gregorio Araneta, Secretary of Justice Aguinaldo; and Felipe Buencamino, Foreign Secretary of Aguinaldo. Buencamino was noted to say in 1902: "I am an American and all the money in the Philippines, the air, the light, and the sun that I consider America." Many such people then took up positions in the colonial administration.
US Army Captain Matthew Arlington Batson formed the Macabebe Scout as a native guerrilla force to fight the insurgency.
Postwar conflict
After the military rule ended on July 4, 1902, the Philippine Police was formed as a large police force to control the robbery and deal with the remnants of the rebel movement. The Philippine police are gradually taking over responsibility for suppressing guerrilla activities and bandits from the United States Army unit. The remains of Katipunan and other insurgents remain active against the US military or the Philippine Police for almost a decade after the official end of the war. However, after the close of the war, Governor-General Taft preferred to rely on the Philippine Police and to treat the irreconcilable as a law enforcement issue rather than military concerns requiring the involvement of American troops.
In 1902, Macario Sakay formed another government, Republika ng Katagalugan , in Rizal Province. The republic ended in 1906 when Sakay and her main followers were arrested and executed the following year by the American authorities.
Beginning in 1904, piracy by organized groups became a problem in some remote provinces of the Visayas. Among these groups are Pulajanes, which come from the highlands of Samar and Leyte. The term Pulajan comes from the original word meaning "red", because they are distinguished by the red clothes they wear. The Pulajanes subscribe to a mixture of Catholicism and popular belief. For example, they believe certain talismans called agimat will get them bulletproof. These movements are all dismissed by the American government as bandits, zealots or cattle enthusiasts. The last of these groups was defeated or had surrendered to the Philippine Constabulary in 1911.
The American government had a peace treaty with the Sulu Sultanate during the outbreak of war, which should have prevented the war in the Philippines (which included parts of Mindanao, the Sulu Islands, Palawan and Sabah). However, after the Philippine resistance in Luzon and Visayas collapsed, the United States began to colonize the land of Moro, which provoked the Moro Rebellion. Beginning with the Bayan Battle of May 1902, the uprising continued until the Battle of Bud Tasak in June 1913, which marked the end of this conflict.
Aftermath
Cultural impact
The influence of the Roman Catholic Church was diminished when the secular US Government dissolved the Church and bought and redistributed Church lands, one of the earliest attempts at land reform in the Philippines. Land area of ​​170,917 hectares (422,350 hectares), where the Church requested $ 12,086,438.11 in March 1903. The purchase was completed on December 22, 1903, with a sale price of $ 7,239,784.66. The land redistribution program is defined in at least three laws: the Philippine Organic Law, the Public Land Law and the Land Law of the Friar. Section 10 of the Public Land Law limits the purchase up to a maximum of 16 hectares for individuals or 1024 hectares for such companies or associations. Land is also offered for rent to landless farmers, with prices ranging from fifty centavos to one peso and fifty centavos per hectare per year. Section 28 of the Public Land Law provides that a lease contract may run for a maximum period of 25 years, renewable for another 25 years.
In 1901, at least five hundred teachers (365 men and 165 women) arrived from the US aboard the USS Thomas . The name Thomasite was adopted for these teachers, who explicitly assigned education as one of America's major contributions to the Philippines. Among the assigned tasks are Albay, Catanduanes, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Sorsogon, and Masbate. Twenty-seven of the original Thomasites died of tropical disease or were killed by Filipino rebels during the first 20 months of their stay. Despite the difficulties, the Thomasites persisted, taught and built learning institutions that prepare students for their chosen professions or trades. They opened the Philippine General School (now University of Normal Philippines) and the Philippine School of Arts and Commerce (PSAT) in 1901 and reopened the Philippine Shipping School, established in 1839 by the Manila Trade Council under Spain. By the end of 1904, the basic courses were mostly taught by Filipinos under American supervision. Philippine independence and sovereignty (1946)
On January 20, 1899, President McKinley appointed the First Philippine Commission (Schurman Commission), a five-person group headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman, president of Cornell University, to investigate the conditions in the islands and make recommendations. In a report they presented to the president the following year, the commissioners recognized the Philippine aspirations for independence; they declare, that the Philippines is not ready for it. Specific recommendations include the establishment of a civil government as soon as possible (the US chief executive on the islands at the time was the military governor), including the formation of bicameral legislatures, autonomous governments at provincial and municipal levels, and the new system of free public primary schools.
From the beginning, the presidents of the United States and their representatives on the islands define their colonial mission as oversight: preparing the Philippines for its ultimate independence. Except for the small group of "retentions", the problem is not whether the Philippines will be given self-government, but when and under what conditions. Thus the political developments on the islands are quick and very impressive given the lack of representative institutions under Spanish. The July 1902 Organic Law of the Philippines stipulates that, with the achievement of peace, a legislative body will be formed composed of the lower house, the Philippine Council, which will be popularly elected, and the upper house of the Philippine Commission, to be appointed by the president of the United States.
The Jones Act, endorsed by the US Congress in 1916 to serve as a new organic law in the Philippines, promised ultimately independence and instituted the elected Filipino senate. The Tydings-McDuffie Act (formally the Philippine Independence Act, Public Law 73-127) was approved on March 24, 1934, provided for self-government of the Philippines and for Philippine independence (from the United States) after a period of ten years. World War II intervened, bringing the Japanese occupation between 1941 and 1945. In 1946, the Manila Treaty (1946) between the governments of the United States and the Republic of the Philippines provided recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines and the release of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.
See also
- Amigo (movie)
- El Presidente (movie)
- The battle of Cagayan de Misamis
- Philippines-America War Campaign
- Heneral Luna (movie)
- The history of the Philippines (1898-1946)
- List of Filipino-American War Honorary Medal recipients
- Filipino Scouts
- Filipino-United States Relations
- Philippine-American War Time Line
Note
References
Further reading
External links
- The American Peril - Spanish-American War Inspection and Philippine Uprising by Dan Carlin
- The Arnaldo Dumindin War
- Images from the Philippine-US War historicaltextarchive.com
- MSC Centennial Celebration Computer Training Center Philippines.
- The Philippines problem, from the Birth of the American Empire, [1]
- "El Primer Genocido" . Retrieved 2 January, 2017 . < span> Ã, (Spanish) (archived from the original on 2006-10-15)
- A brief description of the war between the United States and the Philippines, which began in 1899.
- "August 13, 1898 and short republic RP" in Wayback Machine (archived February 13, 2008) by Mariano "Anong" Santos, Pinoy Newsmagazine, August 2006 (archived on 2008-02-13)
- "Imperial Amnesia" by John B. Judis, Foreign Policy , July/August 2004
- The Philippine Revolutionary Records on Filipiniana.net (archived on 2009-05-25).
- "Battle of Paceo", 1899 paintings by Kurz and Allison at Wayback Machine (archived May 11, 2011) (archived on 2011-05-11)
- "Battle Of Quingua", 1899 painting by Kurz and Allison at Wayback Machine (archived May 11, 2011) (archived on 2011-05-11)
- Philippine-American War
- Book Notes an interview with Stanley Karnow on In Our Image: The American Empire in the Philippines , May 28, 1989.
- No. 15 Spanish 12-pounder Photo of a bronze cannon captured by the Americans in Manila.
- Philippine-American War - 1899-1902 (video)
- Spanish-American (Video) Demonstration (video) on YouTube
- Group Introduction to the Spanish-American War
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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