Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing and issuing drugs. It is a health profession that links the health sciences with chemistry and aims to ensure the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs.
The scope of pharmaceutical practice includes more traditional roles such as compounding and drug delivery, and it also includes more modern services related to health care, including clinical services, reviewing drugs for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information. Therefore, pharmacists are experts in drug therapy and are the main health professionals who optimize the use of drugs for the benefit of patients.
The formation in which pharmacy (in the first sense) is practiced is called pharmacy (this term is more common in the United States) or chemist (more common in the United Kingdom). In the United States and Canada, drugstores usually sell drugs, as well as a variety of items such as confectionery, cosmetics, office supplies, toys, hair care products and magazines as well as occasional beverages and groceries.
In the investigation of herbal and chemical materials, pharmaceutical works may be regarded as the predecessor of the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology, prior to the formulation of the scientific method.
Video Pharmacy
Discipline
The field of pharmacy in general can be divided into three main disciplines:
- Pharmacy
- Chemical Medicine and Pharmacognosi
- Pharmacy Practice
The boundary between these disciplines and with other sciences, such as biochemistry, is not always clear. Often, collaborative teams from different disciplines (pharmacists and other scientists) work together towards the introduction of new therapies and methods for patient care. However, pharmacy is not a basic or biomedical science in its distinctive form. Medical chemistry is also a branch of synthetic chemistry that combines pharmacology, organic chemistry, and chemical biology.
Pharmacology is sometimes regarded as the 4th pharmaceutical discipline. Although pharmacology is very important for pharmaceutical studies, it is not specific to pharmaceuticals. The two disciplines are different. Those who wish to practice both pharmacy (patient-oriented) and pharmacology (biomedical science requiring the scientific method) receive separate training and a unique degree to good discipline.
Pharmacoinformatics is regarded as another new discipline, for the discovery and development of systematic drugs with efficiency and safety.
Maps Pharmacy
Professional
The World Health Organization estimates that there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists and other pharmaceutical personnel around the world.
Pharmacist
Pharmacists are health care professionals with special education and training that perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients through the use of quality medicine. Pharmacists may also be small business owners, have a pharmacy where they practice. Since pharmacists know about certain drug action modes, and metabolism and physiological effects on the human body in detail, they play an important role in optimizing drug treatment for individuals.
Pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP). They are represented at the national level by professional organizations such as the Royal Pharmaceutical Society in the UK, the Australian Pharmaceutical Society (PSA), the Association of Canadian Pharmacists (CPhA), the Association of Apothecary of Pakistan (PPA), and the American Pharmacist Association. (APhA), See also: List of pharmaceutical associations.
In some cases, the representative body is also a registration body, which is responsible for professional rules and ethics.
In the United States, specializations in pharmaceutical practices recognized by the Pharmacy Specialization Council include: cardiovascular disease, infections, oncology, pharmacotherapy, nuclear, nutrition, and psychiatry. The Certification Commission at the Geriatric Pharmacy states the pharmacist in the practice of geriatric pharmacy. The American Board of Applied Toxicology states pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology.
Pharmaceutical technician
Pharmacy technicians support the work of pharmacists and other health professionals by performing various pharmaceutical functions, including prescribing medicines and other medical equipment to patients and instructing their use. They can also perform administrative duties in pharmaceutical practice, such as reviewing prescription requests with medical offices and insurance companies to ensure the correct medication is provided and payment is received.
A Pharmacy Technician in the UK was recently named by some as a professional. Legislation requires supervision of certain apothecary technicians by a pharmacist. The majority of pharmaceutical technicians work in community pharmacies. At hospital pharmacies, pharmaceutical technicians can be managed by other senior pharmaceutical technicians. In the UK the role of PhT in hospital pharmacies has grown and responsibility has been passed on to them to manage pharmaceutical departments and special areas in pharmaceutical practice allowing pharmacists time to specialize in their field of expert as drug consultants spend more time working with patients and in research. Pharmaceutical technicians are registered with the General Pharmaceutical Council (GPhC). The GPhC is a pharmacist regulator, pharmaceutical technician and pharmacy.
In the US, pharmaceutical technicians perform their duties under the supervision of pharmacists. Although they may undertake, under supervision, most expenses, compounding and other tasks, they are generally not permitted to perform the role of patient counseling on the proper use of their medicines.
Education Requirements
There are different school requirements based on the pharmacy that a student is looking for. General pharmacists will achieve Pharmacy Doctorate degrees (Pharm.D.). The Pharm.D. can be completed in a minimum of six years, which includes two years of pre-pharmacy classes, and four years of professional studies. After graduating from the pharmacy school, it is strongly recommended that students continue to complete one or two years of residency, providing valuable experience for students before leaving independently to become general or specialized pharmacists.
The curriculum is made for Pharm.D. consisting of 208 credit hours. Of the 208 credit hours, 68 are credit-transferred hours, and the remaining 140-credit hours are completed in professional schools. There is a standard set of required tests that students must pass during the pharmacy school process. The standard test for admission to a pharmacy school is called Pharmacy University Entry Test (PCAT). In a professional third year of students in a pharmacy school, it is necessary to pass a Pharmaceutical Curriculum Results Assessment (PCOA). After Pharm.D. achieved after the fourth-year professional school, students are then eligible to take the North American Pharmacist License Examination (NAPLEX) and the Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Exam (MPJE) to work as a professional pharmacist.
History
The earliest known compilation of drug substance is Sushuta Samhita, an Indian Ayurvedic treatise attributed to Sushruta in the 6th century BCE. However, the earliest preserved texts date from the 3rd or 4th centuries.
Many Sumerians (late 6 millennium BC - early 2nd millennium BC) cuneiform tablets of prescription clays for drugs.
Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyrus such as Ebers Papyrus in 1550 BC, and Edwin Smith Papyrus in the 16th century BCE.
In Ancient Greece, Diokles of Carystus (4th century BC) was one of the few men who studied the medicinal properties of plants. He wrote several treatises on the topic. Greek Doctor Pedanius Dioscorides is famous for writing a five-volume book in his original Greek, ???? ???? ???????? in the 1st century. The Latin translation of De Materia Medica ( About medical substance ) was used as the basis for many medieval texts, and was built by many Middle Eastern scientists during the Golden Age of Islam.
Pharmacy in China is at least the date for China's earliest known manual, the Shennong Bencao Jing ( Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic ), dating back to the 1st century. It was compiled during the Han dynasty and attributed to the mythical Shennong. The previous literature includes a list of prescriptions for certain diseases, exemplified by a script "Prescriptions for 52 Diseases", found in Mawangdui, sealed in 168 BC.
In Japan, at the end of the Asuka period (538-710) and the early Nara period (710-794), men who fulfill roles similar to modern pharmacists are highly respected. Where pharmacists in the community are strictly defined in Taih? Code (701) and declare it back in Y? R? Code (718). The ranking position in the pre-Heian Imperial palace was established; and this organizational structure remains largely intact until the Meiji Restoration (1868). In this highly stable hierarchy, pharmacists - and even pharmacist assistants - are given higher status than others in health-related fields such as doctors and acupuncturists. In Imperial households, pharmacists are even ranked in the top two personal physicians of the Emperor.
There is a stone sign for the pharmacy with a tripod, dimples, and pestle opposite the doctor at Arcadian Way in Ephesus near Kusadasi in Turkey. Ephesus is currently from 400 BC and is the site of the Temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the world.
In Baghdad the first pharmacy, or drug store, was founded in 754, under the Abbasid Caliphate during the Golden Age of Islam. In the 9th century, these pharmacies were regulated by the state.
The advances made in the Middle East in botany and chemistry led to treatment in medieval Islam substantially to develop pharmacology. Muhammad ibn Zakar? Yes R? Zi (Rhazes) (865-915), for example, acts to promote the medical use of chemical compounds. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936-1013) pioneered the preparation of drugs with sublimation and distillation. His Liber servitoris is of special interest, as it provides the reader with a prescription and explains how to prepare `simples' from where compounded commonly used compound drugs. Sabur Ibn Sahl (d 869), was, however, the first physician to initiate pharmacopoeia, describing a wide variety of drugs and medications for the disease. Al-Biruni (973-1050) wrote one of Islam's most valuable works in pharmacology, entitled Kitab al-Saydalah ( Book of Medicines ), in which he detailed the nature drugs and outlined the role of pharmacies and the functions and tasks of pharmacists. Avicenna, too, describes no less than 700 preparations, their attributes, ways of acting, and their indications. He devoted an entire volume of simple medicines at The Canon of Medicine . The great impact also of al-Maridini's works from Baghdad and Cairo, and Ibn al-Wafid (1008-1074), both printed in Latin more than fifty times, appears as De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus by the younger 'Mesue', and Medicamentis simplicibus by 'Abenguefit'. Peter of Abano (1250-1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Maridini under the title De Veneris . The contribution of Al-Muwaffaq in the field also pioneered. Living in the 10th century, he wrote the Basics of the true nature of Remedies, among others, describes arsenious oxide, and is acquainted with silicic acid. He made a clear distinction between sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate, and drew attention to the toxic nature of copper compounds, particularly the vitriol copper, as well as the lead compounds. He also explained the distillation of seawater for drinking.
In Europe shops like pharmacy began to emerge during the 12th century. In 1240 emperor Frederic II issued a decree with which the doctor's profession and pharmacist's profession were separated. "The first pharmacy in Europe (still functioning) was opened in 1241 in Trier, Germany."
In Europe there is an old pharmacy still operating in Dubrovnik, Croatia, located within the Franciscan monastery, opened in 1317; and in Tallinn Town Square, Estonia, dates from at least 1422. The oldest is claimed to have been founded in 1221 at the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Italy, which is now a museum of perfume. The medieval Esteve Pharmacy, located in LlÃÆ'via, the enclave of Catalan near PuigcerdÃÆ', is also now a museum, dating from the 15th century, keeping albarello from the 16th and 17th centuries, old recipe books and antique medicines.
The practice area
Pharmacists are practicing in a variety of areas including community pharmacies, hospitals, clinics, supplementary care facilities, psychiatric hospitals, and regulatory bodies. Pharmacists themselves may have expertise in medical specialties.
Community pharmacy
(usually chemical pharmacies in Australia, New Zealand and the UK, or drugstores in North America; retail pharmacies in industrial terminology, or pharmacist, historically) is the place where most pharmacists practice the pharmaceutical profession. This is a community pharmacy where there is a dichotomy of the profession - health professionals who are also retailers.
Community pharmacies usually consist of a retail storefront with pharmacies where drugs are stored and dispensed. According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, the opening of the first drug store was recorded by a Muslim pharmacist in Baghdad in 754.
In most countries, pharmacies are subject to pharmaceutical laws; with conditions for storage conditions, mandatory text, equipment, etc., specified in law. Where was the case that pharmacists lived in dispensing/dispensing drugs, there has been an increasing trend towards the use of trained pharmacist technicians while pharmacists spend more time communicating with patients. Pharmaceutical technicians are now more dependent on automation to assist them in their new role of handling patient prescriptions and patient safety issues.
Pharmacies are usually required to have a pharmacist on duty anytime when open. It is also often a requirement that pharmacist owners should be registered pharmacists, although this is not the case in all jurisdictions, as many retailers (including supermarkets and wholesalers) now include pharmacies as their department stores.
Likewise, many pharmacies are now a bit like a grocery store in their design. In addition to medicines and prescriptions, now widely sold a variety of settings such as cosmetics, shampoo, office supplies, candy, snacks, durable medical equipment, greeting cards, and provide photo processing services.
Hospital pharmacy
Hospital pharmacies are very different from community pharmacies. Some pharmacists at hospital pharmacies may have more complex clinical drug management problems whereas pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex business and customer relationship problems.
Because of the complexity of the drug including specific indications, the effectiveness of treatment regimens, drug safety (eg drug interactions) and patient compliance issues (in hospitals and at home) many pharmacists who practice in hospitals receive more education and training after pharmacy schools through residency pharmaceutical practices and sometimes followed by other residencies in certain areas. These pharmacists are often referred to as clinical pharmacists and they often specialize in various pharmaceutical disciplines. For example, there are pharmacists specializing in hematology/oncology, HIV/AIDS, infectious diseases, critical care, emergency medicine, toxicology, nuclear pharmacies, pain management, psychiatry, anti-coagulation clinics, herbal medicine, neurology/epilepsy management, pediatrics, pharmacists neonatal and more.
Hospital pharmacies can often be found inside the hospital. Hospital pharmacies usually store a larger range of drugs, including more specialized drugs, than are appropriate in the community. Most hospital remedies are unit doses, or one dose of medication. Hospital pharmacists and trained pharmacy technicians combine sterile products for patients including total parenteral nutrition (TPN), and other medications administered intravenously. This is a complex process that requires adequate personnel training, product quality assurance, and adequate facilities. Some hospital pharmacies have decided to outsource high risk preparation and some other merging functions for companies that specialize in compounding. The high cost of drug and drug-related technologies, combined with the potential impact of pharmaceuticals and pharmaceutical services on patient care outcomes and patient safety, make it imperative that hospital pharmacies work at the highest level.
Clinical pharmacy
Pharmacists provide direct patient care services that optimize drug use and improve health, health, and disease prevention. Clinical pharmacists treat patients in all health care settings, but clinical pharmacist movements initially begin within hospitals and clinics. Clinical pharmacists often collaborate with physicians and other health care professionals to improve pharmaceutical care. Clinical pharmacists are now an integral part of the interdisciplinary approach to patient care. They often participate in patient care rounds for the selection of drug products.
The role of a clinical pharmacist involves the creation of a comprehensive drug therapy plan for a patient-specific problem, identifying the therapeutic objectives, and reviewing all medications prescribed prior to the administration and administration of the patient. The review process often involves evaluating the suitability of drug therapy (eg, drug choice, dose, route, frequency, and duration of therapy) and its efficacy. Pharmacists should also monitor the potential for drug interactions, adverse drug reactions, and assess patient drug allergies while designing and initiating drug treatment plans.
Outpatient pharmacy
Since the advent of modern clinical pharmacies, the pharmacy practice of ambulance care has emerged as a unique pharmaceutical practice setting. Outpatient pharmacies are primarily based on pharmacotherapy services provided by pharmacists at the clinic. Pharmacists in this setting often do not take drugs, but rather see patients in office visits to manage the state of chronic illness.
In the US federal health care system (including VA, Indian Health Service, and NIH), outpatient pharmacists are given full independent prescription authorities. In some states such as North Carolina and New Mexico, these pharmacists are administered collaborative diagnostic and prescriptive authority. In 2011 the pharmaceutical specialty board approved the pharmaceutical practice of ambulatory care as a separate board certification. The official appointment for pharmacists who pass a special outpatient pharmacy certification exam will be Board Certified Ambulatory Care Pharmacist and this pharmacist will carry the BCACP initials.
Compounding pharmacy
Compounding is the practice of preparing the drug in a new form. For example, if the drug manufacturer only provides the drug as a tablet, the compounding pharmacist may make lollipop drugs containing the drug. Patients who have difficulty swallowing tablets may prefer to suck the processed lollipop instead.
Another form of compounding is to mix various strengths (g, mg, mcg) capsules or tablets to produce the desired amount of drug shown by a physician, a physician's assistant, a Nurse Practitioner, or a clinical pharmacist practitioner. This form of compounding is found in community or hospital pharmacies or home administration therapies.
Combined pharmacies specialize in compounding, although many also excrete the same non-compound drug that patients can obtain from community pharmacies.
Pharmacy consultant
The practice of pharmacy consultants focuses more on the review of drug regimens (ie "cognitive services") than actual drug delivery. Pharmacist consultants usually work in nursing homes, but progressively expand to other institutions and non-institutional settings. Traditional pharmacist consultants are usually independent business owners, although in the United States many now work for some major pharmaceutical management companies (especially Omnicare, Kindred Healthcare and PharMerica). This tendency can gradually reverse when pharmacist consultants start working directly with patients, especially since many elderly people now use many drugs but continue to live beyond institutional arrangements. Some community pharmacies employ pharmacists consultants and/or provide consulting services.
The main principles of pharmaceutical consultants were developed by Hepler and Strand in 1990.
Internet Pharmacy
Since around 2000, more and more Internet pharmacies have been established around the world. Many of these pharmacies are similar to community pharmacies, and in fact, many of these pharmacies are actually operated by brick-and-mortar community pharmacies that serve consumers online and those who walk on their doors. The main difference is the method by which drugs are requested and accepted. Some customers regard this as a more convenient and personal method than traveling to a community drug store where other customers may hear about the drugs they are taking. Internet pharmacies (also known as online pharmacies) are also recommended for some patients by their doctors if they stay home.
Although most Internet pharmacies sell prescription drugs and require a valid prescription, some internet pharmacies sell prescription drugs without the need for a prescription. Many customers order medicines from these pharmacies to avoid the "inconvenience" of visiting doctors or getting drugs that their doctors are not willing to prescribe. However, this practice has been criticized as potentially dangerous, especially by those who feel that only a reliable doctor assesses contraindications, risk/benefit ratios, and overall individual appropriateness for drug use. There are also pharmacy reports that deliver substandard products.
Of particular concern with internet pharmacies is the ease with which people, especially youth, can acquire controlled substances (eg, Vicodin, commonly known as hydrocodone) over the Internet without a prescription issued by a doctor/practitioner who has a well-established doctor-patient relationship. There are many instances where a practitioner issues a prescription, mediated by an Internet server, for a controlled substance to a patient he has never met. In the United States, in order for a prescription for a controlled substance to be valid, it must be issued for a valid medical purpose by a licensed practitioner who acts in a legitimate physician-patient relationship. The charging pharmacy has the appropriate responsibility to ensure that the prescription is valid. Often, individual state laws outline what defines a valid patient-physician relationship.
Canada is home to dozens of licensed Internet pharmacies, many of which sell cheap prescription drugs to US consumers, who pay one of the highest drug prices in the world. In recent years, many consumers in the US and in other countries with high drug costs have shifted to licensed Internet pharmacies in India, Israel and the UK, which often have lower prices than in Canada.
In the United States, there is a push to legalize the import of drugs from Canada and other countries, to reduce consumer costs. While in many cases import prescription drugs violate FDA regulations and federal law, law enforcement is generally aimed at international drug suppliers, rather than consumers. There is no known case of any US citizen who buys Canadian medicines for personal use by prescription, which was once charged by the authorities.
Veterinary pharmacy
Veterinary pharmacies, sometimes called animal pharmacies , may fall into the pharmacy category of hospitals, retail pharmacies or pharmacies of outposts. Animal pharmacies stock different varieties and different strengths of medicines to meet the needs of animal pharmacies. Because animal needs, as well as regulations in veterinary medicine, are often very different from those related to people, animal pharmacies are often kept separate from regular pharmacies.
Nuclear pharmacies
The nuclear pharmacies focus on preparing radioactive materials for diagnostic tests and for treating certain diseases. Nuclear pharmacists undergo special additional training to deal with radioactive materials, and unlike in community pharmacies and hospitals, nuclear pharmacists usually do not interact directly with patients.
Military pharmacy
The military pharmacy is an entirely different work environment due to the fact that technicians perform most of the tasks that in the civil sector will be illegal. State law counseling technicians and drug examinations by pharmacists do not apply.
Pharmacy informatics
Pharmacy informatics is a combination of the science of pharmaceutical practice and applied information science. Informatics pharmacies work in many areas of pharmaceutical practice, however, they can also work in information technology departments or for health information technology vendor companies. As a practice area and specialist domain, pharmacy informatics is growing rapidly to meet the needs of national and international patient information projects and health system interoperability objectives. Pharmacists in this area are trained to participate in the development of treatment management systems, dissemination and optimization.
Custom pharmacy
Special pharmacies provide high-cost injectable oral, injectable, or inhaled drugs used for chronic and complex illnesses such as cancer, hepatitis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Unlike traditional community pharmacies where recipes for general medicine can be brought in and filled, specialty pharmacies carry new medicines that need to be properly stored, managed, monitored, and managed clinically. In addition to providing these medicines, specialty pharmacies also provide laboratory monitoring, adherence counseling, and assist patients with the cost-retention strategies required to obtain expensive specialty drugs. It is currently the fastest growing pharmaceutical industry sector with 19 of the 28 new FDA-approved drugs in 2013 as a specialty drug.
Due to the demand for physicians who can manage this particular patient population appropriately, the Special Pharmacy Certification Agency has developed new certification exams for specialized pharmacist certification. Along with 100 computerized multiple choice questions, pharmacists must also complete 3,000 hours of specialized pharmaceutical practice in the past three years as well as 30 hours of continuous specialized pharmacist education in the past two years.
Pharmaceutical science
The science of pharmacy is a group of interdisciplinary fields of study related to the design, action, delivery, and disposition of drugs. They apply knowledge of chemistry (inorganic, physical, biochemical and analytic), biology (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, cell biology, and molecular biology), epidemiology, statistics, chemometrics, mathematics, physics, and chemical engineering.
The science of pharmacy is further divided into several specialties, with four main branches:
- Pharmacology : the study of the biochemical and physiological effects of drugs in humans.
- Pharmacodynamics : the study of the cellular and molecular interactions of drugs with their receptors. Simply "What the drug does to the body"
- Pharmacokinetics : the study of factors that control the concentration of drugs in various places of the body. Simply "What does the body do to drugs"
- pharmaceutical toxicology : the study of the harmful or toxic effects of the drug.
- Pharmacogenomics : the study of inheritance patterns of interaction characteristics between drugs and organisms.
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry : a study of drug design to optimize pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and the synthesis of new drug molecules (Medical Chemistry).
- Pharmacy : study and design of drug formulations for optimal delivery, stability, pharmacokinetics, and patient acceptance.
- Pharmacogniosis : study of medicines derived from natural sources.
As new discoveries advance and expand the science of pharmacy, sub-specialization continues to be added to this list. Importantly, because of the advancement of knowledge, the boundaries between the specialized fields of pharmaceutical science began to blur. Many basic concepts are common to all pharmaceutical sciences. This common basic concept further understands the understanding of its application to all aspects of pharmaceutical research and drug therapy.
Society and culture
Etymology
The word pharmacy is derived from the Old French farmacie "substance, such as food or in the form of a medication having a laxative effect" of Medieval Latin pharmacia from the Greek pharmakeia (Greek: ????????? ) "a drug", derived from pharmakon ( ???????? ), meaning "medicine, poison, spell" (which etymologically related to pharmakos ).
Preset and spend separation
The separation of prescription and expenditure, also called dispensing separation, is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which physicians are prescribing independent medicines from pharmacists who provide prescription drugs.
In the Western world there are centuries of tradition to separate pharmacists from doctors. In traditional Asian countries for doctors to also provide drugs.
In contemporary times, health policy researchers and analysts have deeply considered their traditions and impacts. Advocates for separation and supporters to combine make similar claims for their respective conflicting perspectives, saying that segregating or incorporating reduces conflicts of interest in the health care industry, unnecessary health care, and lower costs, while the opposite causes them. Research in various places reports mixed results in different situations.
The future of the pharmacy
In the coming decades, pharmacists are expected to become more integral in the health care system. Rather than just administering drugs, pharmacists are increasingly expected to be compensated for their patient care skills. In particular, Medication Therapy Management (MTM) includes the clinical services that pharmacists can provide for their patients. Such services include a thorough analysis of all drugs (prescription, non-prescription, and herbal) currently being taken by an individual. The result is drug reconciliation and patient education resulting in improved patient health outcomes and reduced costs for health care systems.
This shift has already begun in some countries; for example, pharmacists in Australia receive remuneration from the Australian Government to conduct a comprehensive Overview of Home Medicine. In Canada, pharmacists in certain provinces have limited prescribing rights (such as in Alberta and British Columbia) or are paid by their provincial governments for extended services such as drug reviews (Medschecks in Ontario). In the UK, pharmacists who undertake additional training obtain prescription rights and this is due to pharmacy education. They are also paid by the government for drug use reviews. In Scotland, pharmacists can write prescriptions for Scottish patients enrolled in their regular medicines, for most medications, except for supervised medications, when patients can not see their doctor, as can happen if they are far from home or doctor is not available. In the United States, pharmaceutical or clinical pharmaceutical care has had a growing influence on the practice of pharmacies. In addition, a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm D.) degree is now required prior to entering practice and some pharmacists now complete one or two years of residency or fellowship training upon graduation. In addition, pharmacists consultants, who traditionally operate primarily in nursing homes are now developing into direct consultation with patients, under the banner of "senior care pharmacy."
In addition to patient care, pharmacies will be the focal point for medical compliance initiatives. There is ample evidence to show that integrated pharmacy-based initiatives significantly influence adherence to chronic patients. For example, a study published in NIH showed "pharmaceutical-based interventions improved patient treatment compliance rates by 2.1 percent and an increase in physician initiation rate by 38 percent, compared with control groups".
Journal of pharmacy
- List of Pharmacy Journal
Symbol
The two most commonly associated symbols of pharmaceuticals in English-speaking countries are mortar and pestle and? ( recipients ) characters, often written as "Rx" in typed text. The world of the show was also used until the early 20th century. Pharmaceutical organizations often use other symbols, such as the Bowl of Hygieia that is often used in the Netherlands, cone size, and caduceuses in their logos. Another common symbol in different countries: the green Greek cross in France, Argentina, England, Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and India, the increasingly rare Gaper in Holland, and the red A in Germany and Austria (From Apotheke , the German word for pharmacy, from the same Greek root as the English word 'apothecary').
See also
Notes and references
- Notes
- References
References
- Watkins, Elizabeth Siegel (2009). "From Pharmaceutical History to Pharmaceutical History". Pharmacy in History . 51 (1): 3-13.
- (in Japanese) Asai, T. (1985). Nyokan T'kai . Tokyo: K? Dan-Sha.
- (in French) Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gah ?, 1652], Nipon o daÃÆ'¯ itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: The United Kingdom and Ireland Eastern Translation Fund... Click the link for digitizing, full-text copy of this book (in French)
- High Performance Pharmacy - An important study in hospital pharmacy performance based on extensive literature review and collective experience of the Executive Alliance of Health Systems Apparatus.
External links
- Navigator History of Pharmacy Collection of internet resources related to pharmaceutical history
- Soderlund Pharmacy Museum - Information on the history of the American Drugstore
- Lloyd's Library Library of botanical, medical, pharmaceutical, and scientific books and magazines, and works of allied science
- American Institute of the History of Pharmacy, the American Institute of the History of Pharmacy - a resource in the history of pharmacy
- The International Federation of Pharmaceutical Federations (FIP) represents national pharmaceutical associations and pharmaceutical scientists. Information and resources related to pharmacy education, practice, science, and policy
- Pharmaceutical pharmacy association of pharmacy students
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments