Biblical archaeology

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For the movement associated with William F. Albright and also known as biblical archeology , see Biblical archaeological school. For biblical archeology interpretation in relation to biblical historicity, see Bible History and List of artifacts in biblical archeology, for magazines see Bible Archeology Review.

Biblical Archeology involves the restoration and scientific inquiry of the remnants of material from past cultures that can illuminate the period and descriptions of the Bible, either from the Old Testament (Tanakh) or from the New Testament, as well as the history and cosmogony of Jewish-Christian religion. The prime location of interest is what is known in the relevant religions as the Holy Land, which from the western perspective is also called the Middle East. In contrast, ancient Middle Eastern archeology only deals with the Near East Ancient, or the Middle East, without giving a major consideration whether its discovery has a connection with the Bible.

Scientific techniques are used similar to those used in general archeology, such as excavation and radiocarbon dating.

Video Biblical archaeology

Archeology

To understand the importance of biblical archeology, it is first necessary to understand two basic concepts: archeology as a scientific and biblical framework as an object for research. Archeology is a science, not in the Aristotelian sense of cognitio certa per causas but in the modern sense of systematic knowledge. Vicente Vilar expands at this point by stating that archeology is both art and science: as an art seeking the remains of material from ancient civilizations and trying to reconstruct, as far as possible, the environment and organization of one or many historical times; as a relatively new modern science, and as Benesch says, it is a science that has not yet reached 200 years but that, however, completely changes our ideas about the past.

It may be thought that archeology must ignore the information contained in religion and many philosophical systems. However, despite the factual material they provide such as places of worship, sacred objects and other scientifically observable things, there are other aspects as important as archaeological scientific investigations such as religious texts, rituals, customs customs and traditions. The myth is usually used by archaeologists and historians as a clue to events or places that have become hidden in the background, a process by which Rudolf Bultmann called "demythification" - the most notable example is Homer poetry and the mythical city of Troy. This contemporary perception of myth, developed primarily by Bultmann, has prompted scientists such as archaeologists to examine the areas indicated by biblical stories.

Biblical archeology is a discipline occupied by scientific inquiry and the restoration of material remnants of a past culture that can illuminate the time and description of the Bible, the vast time between 2000 BC and 100 AD. Other authors prefer to speak of " Palestinian archeology " and to determine the relevant territories such as those in the east and west of the Jordan River. This indicates that " biblical archeology" or that Palestine is limited by the areas underlying biblical stories.

The Raison d'etre of biblical archeology stems from the fact that it allows an understanding of the people who inhabit the Holy Land. This allows an understanding of their history, culture, identity, and movements. It is possible to know the true location of the story and compare it with the facts. In this regard, Kaswalder has noted that earlier biblical archeology schools of America and Israel saw archeology as evidence of the truth of biblical stories, as can be seen in the work of the writers of William F. Albright, G. Ernest Wright. and Yigael Yadin. However, today archaeologists are not trying to prove that the stories in the Bible are true, they are trying to discover the historical world that places the books in the Bible interesting and from where they get their meaning. Using this approach, introduced by P. Kaswalder, it is possible to explain the following, according to the classification presented by Catalan papyrus Joan Maria Vernet:

• Biblical archeology may explain the knowledge we have of certain historical data described in biblical stories such as government, people, battles and cities.
• This allows us to provide some specific details reflected in the biblical books eg the Siloam Tunnel, Bethesda Pond, Calvary and others that are effectively related to those portrayed in biblical stories.
• Biblical archeology provides fundamental support for exegetical studies.

Maps Biblical archaeology

Locations

The geographical region that limits the area of ​​interest to Biblical archeology is clearly biblical land, also known as the "Holy Land". There are many points of view regarding the exact level of this area, however, biblical archeology specifically concentrates on the Land of Israel, Palestine and Jordan, an area called the southern Levant. Many researchers are also interested in other fields mentioned in Bible tales and which are essential for their connecting threads: Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia which appeal to scientists interested in Tanakh. Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Rome have a greater relationship with the stories of the New Testament.

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Date

In the same way that spatial criteria vary according to the different viewpoints of different researchers, there are also various interesting dates. Kaswalder commented that:

• This period is understood to run from the 9th millennium BC, which relates to the ancient Neolithic remains of Jericho, up to 700 AD, which marked the first invasion by the Muslim army. This period of time is considered by some authorities to be too broad and controversial.
• A narrow second period has been described that is defined more closely by biblical stories: from the Middle Bronze Age, ie from 2000 BC, which according to biblical chronology corresponds to the times of the Patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) to end of the 1st century, with the death of the last apostle John the Evangelist and the end of the so-called Apostolic Church . The term Apostolic Church is defined as the historical period when the apostle of Jesus lived, including Paul of Tarsus. This period ends with the death of John the Evangelist, the exact date of his death is unknown, but it is estimated around 110 AD. However, some scholars assume that the authors of the Fourth Gospel and the Book of Revelation may be the disciples of John.

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Period in biblical archeology

The following list of periods for Syro-Palestine archeology is based on the tables provided at Biblical Archeology: Very Short Introduction , p. 33-34 until the end of the Iron Age, and from the definitions provided by the Mercer Bible Dictionary , p.a, 55, for the next period.

• Neolithic period: c. 8500-4300 BC
  • Neolithic Pre-Pottery (VAT) = c. 8500-6000 BC
    • Neolithic Pre-Potteryum (PPNA) = c. 8500-7500 BC
    • Neolithic Pre-Potential B (PPNB) = 7500-6000 BC
  • Neolithic pottery: 6000-4300 BC
    • Pottery Neolithic A (PNA) = 6000-5000 BC
    • Pottery Neolithic B (PNB) = 5000-4300 BC
• Chalcolithic Period: 4300-3300 BC
• Bronze age: 3300-1200 BC
  • Early Bronze (EB) Age = 3300-2300 BC
    • Initial bronze I (EB I) = 3300-3050 BC
    • Early Bronze II-Bronze Beginning III (EB II-EB III) = 3050-2300/2000 BC
  • Middle Bronze (MB) Age = 2300/2000-1550 BC
    • Early Bronze IV (EB IV)/Middle Bronze I (MB I) 2300-2000 BC
    • Middle Bronze IIA (also called MB II) = 2000-1800/1750 BC
    • Middle Bronze IIB-C III (also called MBII and III) = 1800/1750-1550 BC
  • Late Bronze (LB) Age = 1550-1200 BC
    • Late Bronze I (LB I) = 1550-1400 BC
    • Late Bronze IIA-B (LB IIA-B) = 1400-1200 BC
• Iron Age: 1200-586 BC
  • Iron IA = 1200-1150 BC
  • Iron IB = 1150-1000 BC
  • Iron IIA = 1000-925 BC
  • Iron IIB = 925-720 BC
  • Iron IIC = 720-586 BC
• Period of Babylonia: 586-539 BC
• Persian Period: 539-332 BC
• The Hellenistic period = 332-63 BC
  • Beginner Helenistic = 332-198 BC
  • Late Hellenistic = 198-63 BC
• Roman Period: 63 BC-324 AD

src: huc.edu

History

The study of biblical archeology begins at the same time as general archeology and is clearly evident in regard to the discovery of very important ancient artifacts.

Stages in biblical archeology development

The development of biblical archeology has been marked by different periods:

• Ancient : Although archeology may be considered a modern science, it must be admitted that many chroniclers have left valuable documents that even today are important reading for biblical archeology students. The most important sources of history include Josephus, Origen, Eusebius and Diary of Egeria. Egeria or Aetheria, was a Spanish woman who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land between 381 and 384. His travel journal, which was a surprising journey of adventure for a woman at the time, is a source of research and research even today.
• Before the British Mandate in Palestine: The first archaeological exploration began in the 19th century originally by Europeans. There are many famous archaeologists working today but one of the most famous is Edward Robinson who discovered a number of ancient cities. The Palestinian Exploration Fund was created in 1865 with Queen Victoria as her patron. A major inquiry was conducted around the Temple in Jerusalem in 1867 by Charles Warren and Charles William Wilson, for whom Jerusalem " Wilson's Arch" was named. The American Palestine Exploration Society was founded in 1870. That same year a young French archaeologist, Charles Clermont-Ganneau, arrived in the Holy Land to study two famous inscriptions: The Mesha Stele in Jordan and an inscription at the Jerusalem Temple. Another person entered the scene in 1890, Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, who has been known as the "father of Palestinian archeology". At Tell-el-Hesi, Petrie laid the foundations for methodical exploration by giving great importance to ceramic analysis as an archaeological marker. As a result, recovered objects or fragments serve to correct chronology with a degree of precision, as the pottery is made in different ways and with special characteristics during each age throughout history. In 1889 the Dominican Order opened the French Bible School and Archeology in Jerusalem, which would become world-renowned in its field. Authorities such as M-J. Lagrange and L. H. Vincent stand out among early school archaeologists. In 1898, the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft (German Oriental Society) was founded in Berlin, a number of its excavations were later funded by Emperor William II of Germany. Many other similar organizations were established at this time with the aim of continuing this new discipline, though the investigation of this age has the sole purpose of proving the truth of biblical stories.
• During the British Mandate in Palestine (1922-1948): The investigation and exploration of the Holy Land increased significantly during this time and was dominated by geniuses William Foxwell Albright, CS Fischer, Jesuits, Dominicans, and many others. This era of great advancement and activity closed with a flourish: the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran in 1947 and the subsequent digs, most of which will be directed by Roland de Vaux of France.
• After the British Mandate : 1948 marked the start of a new social and political era for the Holy Land on the basis of the State of Israel and the entrance to the place of Israeli archaeologists. Initially their excavations were limited to the territory of the country, but after the Six Day War they extended into the occupied territories of the West Bank. An important figure in the archeology of this period is Kathleen Kenyon, who directs the excavations of Jericho and Ophel of Jerusalem. Crystal Bennett leads excavations at Petra and Amman fortress, Jabal al-Qal'a. The archaeological museum of the Franciscans and Dominicans in Jerusalem is well known.
• Today's biblical archeology : 21st century biblical archeology is often done by international teams sponsored by universities and government agencies such as the Anti-Fate Authority of Israel. Volunteers are recruited to participate in excavations conducted by professional staff. Practitioners are increasingly increasing efforts to link the results of one excavation with others nearby in an effort to create an ever wider and more detailed picture of the ancient history and culture of each region. Recent rapid technological advances have facilitated more scientifically accurate measurements in dozens of related fields as well as faster and wider reports disseminated.

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School of thought in biblical archeology

Biblical archeology is the subject of ongoing debate. One of the greatest sources of disagreement is the time when the king ruled Israel and more general the historicity of the Bible. It is possible to define two schools of loose thought on these areas: Biblical minimalist and maximism , depending on whether the Bible is regarded as a non-historical, religious or not. The two schools are not separate units but form a continuum, making it difficult to define camps and boundaries. However, it is possible to determine the point of difference, although this difference seems to decrease over time.

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Brief summary of important archaeological sites and findings

Discovery selected

The list of object details can be found in the following pages:

• List of artifacts that are important to the Bible
• List of burial places of biblical characters
• Scripture: A Hebrew Bible Document, New Testament Papyrus List and New Testament Expression
• A list of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources

Objects with unknown or unapproved biblical origin

Biblical archeology has also been subjected to some celebrated forgery, which has been done for various reasons. One of the most famous is Ossuary James, when information was revealed in 2002 about the invention of the ossuary, with the inscription saying " Jacob, son of Joseph and brother of Jesus ". In fact, the artefact was discovered twenty years earlier, after which he exchanged his hands several times and the writing had been added. This is found because it does not match the pattern of the times from which it was dated.

The objects in the following list generally come from private collections and are often bought in antiques markets. Their authenticity is highly controversial and in some cases they are proved false.

• The Ark of the Covenant:
  • There are a number of claims regarding the current location of Ark. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church claims that he holds the Ark in Axum, Ethiopia. The local tradition claims that it was brought to Ethiopia by Menelik I with the help of the divine, while forgery was left in the Temple in Jerusalem.
• Objects from Oded Golan's "antiques" dealer. As explained above, Israeli police accused Golan and his accomplices of faking Ossuary James in 2004, they were also accused of falsifying a number of other objects:
  • The Jehoash inscription, which describes the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem. Allegedly the inscription had been falsified to the original ancient stones.
  • Various ostracas call a temple or biblical name.
  • Candelabra stone with seven arms, decorated with menorah from the temple.
  • The stone seal with the golden border attached to King Manasseh of Judah.
  • Quartz plates with ancient Egyptian inscription stating that King Shishak had captured the ancient city of Megiddo.
  • An ivory pomegranate with the words " belonging to the priests of the Temple" is carved on an authentic antique piece of ivory.
  • Many bulls, including some who mention biblical characters such as Baruch Ben Neriah scribe and Isaiah and Ezekiel prophets.
• Various groups claim to have found Noah's Ark. Many scholars consider that these findings belong to pseudoarcheology.
  • An Italian creationist group called The Narcotics is just one of many groups claiming to know the exact location of the rest of Ark at the summit of Mount Ararat, on the border between Turkey and Armenia. Photos of this site can be viewed on the Narkas website.
  • In 2004, an expedition investigated a ridge 19 km from the summit of Mount Ararat, believed to be an alternative landing site for the Ark. Samples were submitted to the Institute for Research on the Crown of Geological and Nuclear Sciences in Wellington, New Zealand for testing. However, geologists at government agencies concluded that the sample was volcanic rock and not a petrified wood.
• The Shroud of Turin:
  • Critics insist that linen contains Jesus' paintings made in the Middle Ages. Others argue that the image is formed by an energetic process that darkens the shroud fibers at the resurrection. The radiocarbon dating of some sample material taken from the shroud has been dated to the Middle Ages, but some researchers claim that samples were taken from patches that have been woven back to the shroud boundary areas during that time period.
• Veil Saint Veronica:
  • The fabric with the face of a man, said to be Jesus by a believer, is printed on it. The believers thought it was the fabric used by Veronica to cleanse Jesus' face on Via Dolorosa on the way to Calvary. There are at least six images that have a real resemblance to each other and all of which claim to be the original Veil.

src: huc.edu

Biblical Archeology and the Catholic Church

The majority of excavations and investigations carried out in areas where biblical narratives are set primarily have the purpose of giving light to historical, cultural, economic and religious backgrounds to texts, and therefore their primary purpose is usually not to prove this truth. story. However, there are some groups that take a more fundamentalist approach and who organize archaeological campaigns in order to find evidence that the Bible is factual and that its narrative should be understood as a historical event. This is not the official Catholic Church position.

Archaeological investigations carried out by scientific methods can offer useful data in improving the chronology that helps to order biblical stories. In some cases, this investigation can find the place where these narratives occur. In other cases, they can confirm the truth of the story. However, in other matters they may question events that have been considered historical facts, giving arguments that show that certain narratives are not historical narratives, but belong to different narrative genres.

In 1943, Pope Pius XII recommended that the interpretation of Scripture consider archaeological findings to distinguish the literary genre used by the Bible.

[...] translators must, as it were, return entirely in spirit to the distant centuries of the East and with the help of history, archeology, ethnology, and other sciences, accurately determine what the mode of writing is, so to speak, the the author of the ancient period is likely to use it, and even use it. [...] Let those who develop Bible study distract them with all due diligence on this subject and let them ignore none of these discoveries, whether in the archaeological domain or in ancient history or literature, which serves to make it better known the mentality of the ancient writers, as well as the manner and art of their reasoning, telling and writing. [...]

From now on archeology has been considered to provide valuable assistance and as an indispensable tool of the biblical sciences.

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Expert Comment

[...] "The purpose of biblical archeology is the clarification and illumination of the text and the content of the Bible through archaeological inquiry into the biblical world."

Archaeologist William G. Dever contributed to the article on "Archeology" in The Anchor Bible Dictionary . In this article he repeats his perception of the negative effects of the existing close relationship between Syro-Palestinian archeology and biblical archeology, which has led archaeologists working in this field, especially American archaeologists, to reject the adoption of new methods "Archeology processed ". In addition he considers that: "Underlying much skepticism in our own field [referring to the adaptation of the concept and method of" new archeology "], people suspect the assumption (though not expressed or even unconsciously) that ancient Palestine, especially Israel during the biblical period, unique, in some superhistorical way that is not governed by normal cultural evolutionary principles ".

Dever finds that Syro-Palestinian archeology has been treated in American institutions as a sub-discipline of Bible study, where it is expected that American archaeologists will try to "provide valid historical evidence of episodes of the biblical tradition". According to Dever "the most naÃfve idea about Syro-Palestinian archeology" is that the reason and purpose of "biblical archeology" (and, by extrapolation, Syro-Palestinian archeology) is only to explain facts about the Bible and the Holy Land. "

Dever also writes that:

"Archeology certainly does not prove a literal reading of the Bible... It makes them questionable, and that's what annoys some people.. Most people really think that archeology is out there to prove the Bible, no archaeologist thinks so." From the beginning of what we call biblical archeology, perhaps 150 years ago, scholars, mostly western scholars, have sought to use archaeological data to prove the Bible. And for a long time it was considered successful. William Albright, the great father of our discipline, often speaks of the "archaeological revolution." Well, the revolution has come but not as Albright thinks. The truth of the current problem is that archeology raises more questions about the Hebrew Hebrew's history and even the New Testament than it gives an answer, and that is very disturbing for some people.

Dever also writes:

Archeology as practiced today must be able to challenge, as well as assert, biblical stories. Some of the things described there actually happened, but others did not. The biblical narrative of Abraham, Moses, Joshua, and Solomon may reflect some historical memory of people and places, but the larger 'portrait of life' of the Bible is unrealistic and contrary to archaeological evidence.... I do not read the Bible as Scripture... I'm actually not a theis. My views all along - and especially in the latest books - are first that the biblical narratives are indeed 'stories,' often fictional and almost always propaganda, but here and there they contain some valid historical information...

Tel Aviv University archaeologist Ze'ev Herzog writes in the Haaretz newspaper:

This is what archaeologists learn from their excavations in the Land of Israel: Israelis never in Egypt, not roaming the wilderness, not conquering the land in military campaigns and not passing it on to 12 tribes of Israel. Perhaps even more difficult to swallow is that the united monarchy of David and Solomon, described by the Bible as a regional power, is mostly a small tribal kingdom. And it will come as an unpleasant surprise to many that the God of Israel, YHWH, has a female consort and that early Israeli religion adopted monotheism only in the fading monarchy period and not on Mount Sinai.

Professor Finkelstein told the Jerusalem Post that Jewish archaeologists found no historical or archaeological evidence to support the biblical narrative of the Exodus, the Jewish odyssey in Sinai or the conquest of Canaan by Joshua. On the alleged Temple of Solomon, Finkelstein said that there is no archaeological evidence to prove it really exists. Professor Yoni Mizrahi, an independent archaeologist, agrees with Israel Finkelstein.

Regarding Israel Exodus from Egypt, Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass said:

Really, this myth,... This is my career as an archaeologist. I have to tell them the truth. If people get annoyed, it's not my problem.

Conservative scholars deny this claim. In his 2001 book Old Testament Documents: Are They Reliable and Relevant? The Evangelical Old Testament scholar Walter C. Kaiser Jr. include a chapter entitled, "Does Archeology Help the Case for Reliability?" Kaiser states:

[T] he studied archeology has helped illuminate the Bible by giving light to its historical and cultural location. With increasingly clear, biblical arrangements appear more clearly in the framework of general history.... by incorporating biblical history, people, and events into general history, archeology has demonstrated the validity of many biblical references and data. It continues to impart light, both implicitly and explicitly, to many biblical customs, cultures, and settings during various historical periods. On the other hand, archeology has also raised some real problems with regard to its findings. As such, his job is an ongoing job that can not be taken over too quickly or is only used as a confirmation tool.

Kaiser went on to detail cases after a case in which the Bible, he said, "has helped in the identification of missing persons, missing persons, customs and lost arrangements." He concluded:

This is not to say that archeology is a cure for all challenges brought to the text - no! There are some terrible problems that still exist - some created by the archaeological data themselves. But since we have seen so many special challenges over the years producing such specific data that support the text, the presumption tends to build that we must go with the text until the exact opposite information is available. This methodology which says that innocent texts until proven guilty is not only recommended as a good procedure for American jurisprudence, but it is also recommended to examine the claims of Scripture as well.

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Excavation and survey

Source of the article : Wikipedia