Sociology as a scientific discipline arose primarily from enlightenment thought, shortly after the French Revolution, as the positivist science of society. . Its origins are indebted to the various key movements in the philosophy of science and philosophy of knowledge. Social analysis in a broader sense, however, has its origins in the stock of general philosophy and of course pre-date field. Modern academic sociology emerges as a reaction to modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization and imperialism. The end of 19th century sociology shows a very strong interest in the emergence of the modern nation state; its constituent institutions, its socialization units, and its monitoring facilities. The emphasis on the concept of modernity, rather than the Enlightenment, often distinguishes the sociological discourse of classical political philosophy.
Various quantitative social research techniques have become a common tool for governments, businesses, and organizations, and have also been found used in other social sciences. Divorced from the theoretical explanations of social dynamics, this has given social studies an autonomous level of sociological discipline. Similarly, "social science" has come to be used as an umbrella term to refer to various disciplines that study human, interaction, community or culture.
Video History of sociology
Precursors
Ancient
Sociological reasoning can be traced back to at least as far as the ancient Greeks (cf. Xenophanes? Comment: " If the horse will worship the gods, these gods will resemble a horse "). Proto-sociological observations can be found in the texts of the founders of Western philosophy (Herodotus, Thucydides, Plato, Polybius and so on), as well as in the thinking of non-European figures such as Confucius. The characteristic trends in ancient Greek sociological thought can be traced back to their social environment. Because there is rarely an extensive or highly centralized political organization within these countries, it allows the spirit of localism and provincial tribes to play freely. The spirit of localism and tribal provincialism encompassed most Greek thought on social phenomena.
The origin of the survey can be traced back to the Domesday Book ordered by King William I in 1086.
In the thirteenth century, Ma Tuan-Lin, a Chinese historian, first recognized the pattern of social dynamics as the underlying component of historical development in his seminal encyclopedia, Wenxian Tongkao or " Comprehensive Examination of Literature > ".
Ibn Khaldun (14th century)
There is evidence of early Muslim sociology from the 14th century. Some consider Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century Arabic, Arabian, Arabian historian from North Africa, to become the sociologist and father of the first sociology; his Muqaddimah may be the first work to advance social-scientific reasoning about social cohesion and social conflicts. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), in his book
Regarding the discipline of sociology, it contains a dynamic historical theory that involves the conceptualization of social conflict and social change. He developed a living dichotomy versus nomadic life as well as the concept of "generation", and the inevitable loss of power that occurred when desert fighters conquered a city. Following a contemporary Arab scholar, Sati 'al-Husri, Muqaddimah can be read as a sociological work: six books of general sociology. Topics covered in this work include politics, urban life, economics, and knowledge. This work is based on Ibn Khaldun's central concept of 'asabiyyah, which has been translated as "social cohesion", "group solidarity", or "tribalism". This social cohesion arises spontaneously in other tribes and kinship groups; it can be intensified and enlarged by religious ideology. Ibn Khaldun's analysis sees how this cohesion leads groups to power but contains within him seeds - psychological, sociological, economic, political - from the fall of the group, to be replaced by new groups, dynasties or kingdoms bound by the stronger (or most not younger and stronger) cohesion.
Maps History of sociology
Classic origins
The term (" sociologie ") was first coined by the French essay Emmanuel Joseph SieyÃÆ'¨s (1748-1836), from Latin: socius , "companion"; and suffix -ology , "study of", from the Greek ?????, lÃÆ'³gos , "knowledge". In 1838, the French thinker Auguste Comte (1798-1857) finally gave the definition of sociology that he held today. Comte had previously expressed his work as "social physics", but the term had been adapted by others, such as Belgian statist Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874).
The Enlightenment and positivism
Henri de Saint-Simon
Saint-Simon published the Physiologie sociale in 1813 and devoted most of his time to the prospect that human society could be directed toward progress if scientists would form an international assembly to influence its path. He argues that scientists can divert group attention from war and disputes, focusing on generally improving the living conditions of their communities. In turn, this will bring many cultures and communities together and prevent conflict. Saint-Simon took the idea that everyone had pushed from the Enlightenment, which was a belief in science, and asked him to be more practical and direct to society. Saint-Simon's main idea is that industrialism will create a new launch in history. He sees that people have seen progress as an approach to science, but he wants them to see it as an approach to all aspects of life. Society is making important changes at that time because it grows from feudalism that is declining. This new path can be the foundation for solving all the old problems previously faced by the community. He is more concerned with human participation in the labor force and not the one chosen by the workforce. His slogan became "Everyone should work" and from here, the slogan of communism evolved "Any according to its capacity."
Writing after the original enlightenment and influenced by the work of Saint-Simon, the social contract political philosopher Auguste Comte hopes to unite all human studies through a scientific understanding of the social world. Its own sociological scheme is typical of the nineteenth-century humanists; he believes all human life passes through different stages of history and that, if one can understand this progress, one can prescribe medication for social ills. Sociology is becoming "queen science" in the Comte scheme; all basic physical sciences must come first, leading to the most fundamental science of human society itself. Comte was later seen as the "Father of Sociology". Comte described his broader philosophy of science in The Course in Positive Philosophy (1830-1842), while his General View of Positivism (1865) emphasized the specific purpose of sociology.
Auguste Comte was deeply impressed by his theory of positivism which he called the "great invention of 1822." The Comte system is based on the principles of knowledge, as seen in 3 states. This law states that every kind of knowledge always begins in a theological form. Here knowledge can be explained by supernatural superior powers such as animism, spirit, or god. It is then passed on to a metaphysical form in which knowledge is explained by abstract philosophical speculation. Finally, knowledge becomes positive after it is scientifically explained through observation, experiment, and comparison. The legal order is made in order to increase the difficulty. Comte's description of the development of society parallels Karl Marx's own theory of historical development from capitalism to communism. They were both influenced by various utopian-socialist thinkers that day and agreed that some forms of communism would be the climax of community development.
In later life, Auguste Comte developed a 'humanitarian religion' to give the society a positivist unity and cohesiveness found through traditional worshipers. In this new "religion" he referred to society as "the Great Being". Comte promotes universal love and harmony taught through the theories of his industrial systems. For a close associate of John Stuart Mill, it is possible to distinguish between the "good Comte" (the author of the Course in Positive Philosophy) and the "Bad Comte" (the author of the secular-religious religion system ). The system was unsuccessful but met Darwin's publication On The Origin of Species to influence the proliferation of secular Humanist organizations in the nineteenth century, mainly through secular works such as George Holyoake and Richard Congreve.
Darwin's industrial revolution and revolution
Historical Materialism
Both Comte and Marx are meant to develop a new scientific ideology amid European secularization. Marx, in the tradition of Hegelianism, rejected the positivist method and was rejected by the self-proclaimed sociologist of his day. However, in an effort to develop a comprehensive societal society Marx was still recognized as the founder of sociology in the mid-20th century. Isaiah Berlin described Marx as "the real father" of modern sociology, "as far as anyone can claim a title."
To provide a clear and unified answer in empirical terms familiar to the theoretical questions most dominated by the human mind at the time, and have deduced from them clear practical clues without creating a clear artificial relationship between the two, is a major accomplishment Marx's theory. The sociological treatment of historical and moral problems, which Comte and after him, Spencer and Taine, have been discussed and mapped, became concrete and appropriate studies only when militant attacks on Marxism made its conclusions as a burning issue, more passionate and attentive to more intense methods.
In the 1830s, Karl Marx was part of the Young Hegel in Berlin, which discusses and writes about the legacy of the philosopher, Hegel (1770-1831) (whose bold book, Science of Logic was published in 1816). Although initially sympathetic to the group's strategy of attacking Christianity to undermine the Prussian stance, he then formed a different idea and severed ties with Hegel Muda, attacking their views in works such as German ideology. Witnessing the struggles of the workers during the Industrial Revolution, Marx concluded that religion (or "ideal") is not the basis of the founding power, but the ownership of capital (or "matter") - processes that use technology, land, money and especially human labor to create value more - located in the heart of the company's strength. It "stood Hegel on his head" when he theorized that, in essence, the machinery of history and the structure of society were essentially material rather than ideal. He theorizes that both the realm of cultural production and political power creates an ideology that perpetuates the oppression of the working class and the concentration of wealth within the capitalist class: the owners of the means of production. Marx predicted that the capitalist class would feel compelled to reduce wages or replace workers with technology, which would eventually increase wealth among the capitalists. However, since workers are also the primary consumers of manufactured goods, reducing their wages will result in the inevitable collapse of capitalism as a mode of economic production.
Social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), the English philosopher, was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists. Early sociology Spencer appeared widely in reaction to the Comte and Marx; writing before and after Darwin's revolution in biology, Spencer attempted to redefine discipline in what we can now describe as a social Darwinist term. In fact, his earlier writings showed a coherent general theory of evolution several years before Darwin published anything on the subject. Encouraged by his friend and followers of Edward L. Youmans, Spencer published the Sociology Study in 1874, which is the first book with the term "sociology" in the title. In the 1900 edition of the journal International Monthly, Franklin H. Giddings (1855-1931), the first professor of sociology at Columbia University, described it as the book "first awakened in Britain, America, France, Italy and Russia has broad common interests "in the emerging sociology discipline. In the United States, Charles Horton Cooley, stated in a 1920 article that the Sociology Study may be more interested in the subject than any other publication before or after. It is estimated that he sold a million books in his life, far more than any other sociologist at the time. So powerful was the effect that many other nineteenth-century thinkers, including Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to their counterparts. Durkheim's
A contemporary Spencer, Lester Frank Ward is often described as the father of American sociology and served as the first president of the American Sociological Association in 1905 and held that position until 1907. He published Dynamic Sociology in 1883.; Outline of Sociology in 1898; Pure Sociology in 1903; and Applied Sociology in 1906. Also in 1906, at the age of 65 he was appointed professor of sociology at Brown University.
After Ward was president of the American Sociological Association William Graham Sumner from 1908 to 1909. He also held the position of the first teacher of sociology at Yale College, and in 1876, Sumner became the first to teach a course entitled "sociology" in English-speaking the world. The course focuses on the work of Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. He ideologically opposed Ward's sociology when he felt that society could not be controlled by scientific intervention, and famously stated the alternative to "survival of the fittest" was "survival of the unfittest". However, he also opposed Spencer's great theory. During the Progressive Era in the United States, social Darwinism became a contentious topic and Sumner and his studies at Yale College were criticized for incorporating Spencerian ideas. This almost led to Sumner's expulsion from teaching. His most famous sociological work is What Social Classes Owe One Another in 1883 and Folkways: a study of the sociological importance of use, etiquette, customs, customs, and morals in 1906.
Other precursors
Many other influential philosophers and academics in the development of sociology, not least the Enlightenment theorists from social contracts, and historians such as Adam Ferguson (1723-1816). For his theory of social interaction, Ferguson has been described as "the father of modern sociology" Another early work to adapt the term 'sociology' including North American Treatise on Sociology, Theoretical and Practical. lawyers Henry Hughes and Sociology for the South, or the Failure of Free Communities by American lawyer George Fitzhugh. Both books were published in 1854, in the context of the American slavery debate before the war. Harriet Martineau, a Whig social scientist and English translator of many of Comte's works, has been called the first female sociologist.
Various other early social historians and economists have gained recognition as classical sociologists, including Robert Michels (1876-1936), Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859), Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) and Thorstein Veblen (1857-1926). Classical sociological texts are widely different from political philosophy in an attempt to remain scientific, systematic, structural, or dialectical, rather than purely moral, normative or subjective. The new class relations associated with the development of Capitalism are also key, more distinguishing sociological texts from Renaissance political philosophy and the Enlightenment.
Foundation of academic discipline
The institutionalization of formal sociology as an academic discipline began when Emile Durkheim founded the first department of French sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. In 1896, he founded the journal L'AnnÃÆ'Â © e Sociologique .
A course entitled "sociology" was taught for the first time in the United States in 1875 by William Graham Sumner, making use of Comte and Herbert Spencer's thoughts rather than Durkheim's. In 1890, the oldest sociology course in the United States began at the University of Kansas, which was given a discourse by Frank Blackmar. The Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas was founded in 1891 and the first independent independent sociology department was fully established in 1892 at the University of Chicago by Albion W. Small (1854-1926), which in 1895 founded the American Journal of Sociology . American sociology emerges on a broad independent trajectory of European sociology. George Herbert Mead and Charles H. Cooley were influential in the development of symbolic interactionism and social psychology at the University of Chicago, while Lester Ward emphasized the importance of the scientific method with the publication of Dynamic Sociology in 1883.
The University of Chicago developed a major sociologist at the time. It unites them, and even gives them centers and networks to connect all the leading sociologists. In 1925, a third of all graduate students of sociology attended the University of Chicago. Chicago is very clever not to isolate their students from other schools. They encourage them to mingle with other sociologists, and do not spend more time in the classroom than study the communities around them. This will teach them the real-life application of classroom teaching. The first teaching at the University of Chicago focused on the social issues that the world has handled. At this time, academics are not concerned with theory; especially not to the point of academic at this time. Many people are still in doubt with current sociology, especially with the latest controversial theories of Weber and Marx. The University of Chicago decided to go in a completely different direction and their sociology department directs their attention to individuals and promotes equal rights. Their concentration is small groups and the discovery of individual relationships with the community. This program is combined with other departments to offer students a thorough study that requires courses in hegemony, economics, psychology, social sciences and political science. Albion Small is head of the sociology program at the University of Chicago. He played a key role in bringing German sociological progress directly into American academic sociology. Small also created the American Journal of Sociology. Robert Park and Ernest Burgess perfected program methods, guidelines and checkpoints. This makes the findings more standardized, concise and easy to understand. The couple even wrote a sociology textbook for reference and made all students on the same page more effective. Many outstanding sociologists such as George Hebert Mead, W.E. Du Bois, Robert Park, Charles S. Johnson, William Ogburn, Hebert Blumer and many others have a significant relationship with the University of Chicago.
In 1920 a department was founded in Poland by Florian Znaniecki (1882-1958). William I. Thomas is an early graduate of the University of Chicago Sociology Department. He built his education and his work changed sociology in many ways. In 1918, William I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki gave the world the publication of "The Polish Peasant" in Europe and America. This publication combines sociological theory with profound research experience and thereby launches the overall methodological sociological research. This changed the sociological method and allowed them to see new patterns and connect new theories. This publication also gives sociologists a new way to find their research and prove it to a whole new level. All of their research will be more solid, and it's harder for people not to notice it. In 1920, Znaniecki developed the department of sociology in Poland to expand his research and teaching there.
With the lack of sociological theory taught at the University of Chicago paired with new basics of statistical methods, students' ability to make real predictions does not exist. This is a major factor in the fall of the Chicago school.
The first sociology department in Great Britain was founded at the London School of Economics in 1904. In 1919, a department of sociology was founded in Germany at Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber, who has formed a new antipositivist sociology. The "Institute for Social Research" at the University of Frankfurt (later became the "Frankfurt School" of critical theory) was founded in 1923. [29] Critical theories will take something from his own life after WW2, affecting literary theory and the "Birmingham School" studies culture.
The progress of the University of Frankfurt along with its close proximity to sociological research institutes made Germany a strong force in leading sociology at the time. In 1918, Frankfurt received funding to make the chairman of the first department of sociology. German innovative work influenced his government to add the position of the Minister of Culture to advance the country as a whole. The incredible collection of men who contributed to the department of sociology in Frankfurt soon gained worldwide attention and began to be referred to as the "Frankfurt school." Here they learn a new perspective of Marx's theories, and enter into the works of Weber and Freud. Most of these men will soon be forced out of Germany by the Nazis and arrive in America, influencing social research there. This forced sociological relocation allows sociology in America to advance the European sociological study standards by planting some of the greatest sociologists in Europe in America.
Felix Weil is one of the students who received their doctorate on the concept of socialization from the University of Frankfurt. He, along with Max Horkheimer and Kurt Albert Gerlach, developed the Institute for Social Research and was founded in 1923. Kurt Albert Gerlach will serve as the first director of the institute. Their goal in creating an institute is to produce a place that can be found by people and get information about social life as a whole. Weil, Horkheimer, and Gerlach want to focus on the interaction between economic, political, legal issues, as well as scientific interaction in society and society. The main research that made the institute known was the rise of scientific Marxism. Many philanthropists donate money, supplies, and buildings to keep this area of ​​research going. When Gerlach, sick and had to resign as director, Max Horkheimer succeeded him. He encouraged the students of the institute to question everything they learned. If students learn a theory, they not only want them to discover their own truth, but also to discover how, and why it is true and the theories relate to society. The National Socialist regime alienates many members of the Institute for Social Research. The regime also forced many students and staff from all over the University of Frankfurt, and most of them fled to America. Many people who were forced from the institute also left the road of war, but unlike the university, the institute lost too many people and was forced to close down. In 1950, the institute was reopened as a private company. From this point on the Institute of Social Research will have close links with sociological studies in the United States.
International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when Renà ©  © Worms (1869-1926) founded the small Institute of International de Sociologie, which was defeated by the International Association of Sociology much larger than in 1949. In 1905 , The American Sociological Association, the world's largest professional sociologist association, was founded, and Lester F. Ward was elected to serve as the first President of the new society.
Canon: Durkheim, Marx, Weber
Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are usually referred to as the three main architects of modern social science. The classical "sociological canon" with Durkheim and Weber at the top owes partly to Talcott Parsons, which is largely credited with introducing favorably to American audiences. Parsons' Structure of Social Action (1937) consolidates American sociological traditions and sets the agenda for American sociology at the fastest disciplinary growth point. However, in the Parsons canon, Vilfredo Pareto has greater significance than Marx or Simmel. The canon is guided by the desire to "unite the different theoretical traditions within sociology behind a theoretical scheme, which can actually be justified by pure scientific developments in discipline for half a century earlier." While the secondary role played by Marx in early American sociology may be attributed to Parsons, and the broader political trend, Marxist dominance in European sociological thinking has long secured the rank of Marx with Durkheim and Weber as one of three "classical sociologists.
19th century: from positivism to antipositivism
The methodological approach to sociology by early theorists is to treat the discipline widely in the same way as natural science. Emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method seeks to provide an irrefutable ground for sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as philosophy. This perspective, called positivism, was first developed by the Auguste Comte theorist. Positivism is founded on the theory that the only true and factual knowledge is scientific knowledge. Comte has a very strong guide to a theory that is considered positivism. He thinks that this authentic knowledge can only be obtained from the confirmation of a positive theory through a constantly tested method that is not only scientifically but quantitatively based. Durkheim is a major proponent of empirical research based on theory, seeking correlation for expressing structural laws, or "social facts". Durkheim proves that the concepts that have been attributed to the individual are socially determined. These events are things like suicide, crime, moral anger, personality, time, space, and God. He explained that society has an influence on all aspects of a person, far more than previously believed. For him, sociology can be described as "the science of institutions, their origins and their functions". Durkheim seeks to apply sociological finds in the pursuit of political reform and social solidarity. Today, the scientific record of Durkheim's positivism may be vulnerable to exaggeration and over-simplification: Comte is the only major sociological thinker to postulate that the social sphere may be subject to scientific analysis in the same way as noble science, while Durkheim admits more detailed fundamental epistemological constraints.
The reaction to positivism began when German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) voiced opposition to empiricism, which he rejected as uncritical, and determinism, which he regarded as too mechanistic. Karl Marx's methodology was borrowed from Hegel's dialecticism but also the rejection of positivism in favor of critical analysis, which seeks to complement the "fact" empirical acquisition with the elimination of illusions. He argues that appearance should be criticized not only documented. Nevertheless Marx sought to produce a science of society based on the economic determinism of historical materialism. Other philosophers, including Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) and Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936) argued that the natural world is different from the social world because of the unique aspects of human society (meaning, signs, etc.) that inform human culture.
At the turn of the 20th century the first generation of German sociologists formally introduced methodological antipositivism, proposing that research should concentrate on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and social processes seen from a subjective perspective. Max Weber argues that sociology can be loosely described as 'science' because it is capable of identifying causal relationships - especially between ideal types, or hypothetical simplification of complex social phenomena. However, as a nonpositivist, one looks for relationships that are not "ahistorical, invariant, or generalizable" as pursued by natural scientists. Ferdinand TÃÆ'¶nnies presented Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (sometimes translated as community and community ) as two types of normal human relationships, a distinction developed further by Max Weber. TÃÆ'¶nnies draws a sharp line between the conceptual realm and the reality of social action: the former must be treated axiomatic and in a deductive way ('pure' sociology), while the latter empirically and inductively ('applied' sociology). Both Weber and Georg Simmel pioneered the Verstehen (or 'interpretative') approach to social science; a systematic process in which outside observers seek to relate to particular cultural groups, or indigenous peoples, in their own ways and from their own point of view. Through Simmel's work, in particular, sociology acquires a character that may be beyond the collection of positivist data or a large and deterministic structural legal system. Relatively isolated from the sociological academies throughout its life, Simmel presents an idiosyncratic analysis of modernity that is more akin to the phenomenological and existential writers than Comte or Durkheim, paying particular attention to form, and possibly to, social individuality. His sociology involved in the neo-Kantian critique of the limits of perception, asking 'What is society?' in direct reference to Kant's question 'What is nature?'
20th_century: _critical_theory.2C_postmodernism.2C_and_positivist_revival "> 20th century: critical theory, postmodernism, and positivist revival
At the beginning of the 20th century, sociology expanded in the US, including developments in both macrosociology, related to community evolution, and microsociology, which is concerned with the daily social interactions of humans. Based on pragmatic social psychology George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), Herbert Blumer (1900-1987) and, later, the Chicago school, sociologists developed symbolic interactionism. In the 1920s, GyÃÆ'¶rgy LukÃÆ'¨cs released Classroom History and Consciousness (1923), while a number of works by Durkheim and Weber were published posthumously. In the 1930s, Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) developed the theory of action, integrating the study of social order with the structural and voluntaristic aspects of macro and micro factors, while putting the discussion in the context of a higher explanation of system theory and cybernetics. In Austria and later the United States, Alfred SchÃÆ'¼tz (1899-1959) developed a social phenomenology, which would then inform social constructions. During the same period members of the Frankfurt school, such as Theodor W. Adorno (1903-1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), developed a critical theory, integrating the historical materialistic elements of Marxism with the insights of Weber, Freud and Gramsci - in theory, always in name - often characterizes capitalist modernity as a step away from the central principles of enlightenment.
During the Interwar period, sociology was undermined by totalitarian government for reasons of real political control. After the Russian Revolution, sociology gradually "politicized, Bolshevisized and ultimately, Stalin" to virtually nothing else in the Soviet Union. In China, the discipline was banned with semiotics, linguistic comparisons and cybernetics as "bourgeois pseudoscience" in 1952, not returned until 1979. During the same period, however, sociology was also undermined by conservative universities in the West. This is due, in part, to the perception of the subject as having an inherent tendency, through its own purpose and transmit, toward the left-wing or liberal thought. Given that the subject is founded by a structural functional; related to organic cohesion and social solidarity, this view is somewhat unwarranted (though Parsons introduced Durkheim to an American audience, and his interpretation has been criticized for latent conservatism).
By the mid-20th century there was a general trend - but not universal - for US-American sociology to become more scientific in nature, because of the superiority of the moment of action theories and other systems-theoretical approaches. Robert K. Merton released his Social Theory and Social Structure (1949). At the turn of the 1960s, sociological research was increasingly being used as a tool by governments and businesses around the world. Sociologists develop new types of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Paul Lazarsfeld founded the Bureau of Applied Social Research at Columbia University, where he exerted tremendous influence over social research techniques and organizations. His many contributions to sociological methods have earned him the title of "the founder of modern empirical sociology". Lazarsfeld made great strides in the analysis of survey statistics, panel methods, latent structure analysis, and contextual analysis. He is also regarded as one of the founders of mathematical sociology. Many of his ideas are so influential that they are now considered clear.
In 1959, Erving Goffman published the Self-Presentation in Daily Life and introduced the theory of dramaturgy analysis which asserts that all individuals aim to create a certain impression about themselves in the minds of others. C. Wright Mills presented The Sociological Imagination, encouraging humanistic discourse and rejection of abstract empiricism and great theories. As social movements emerged in the 1960s, especially in Britain, the change of culture saw an increase in conflict theories that emphasized social struggle, such as neo-Marxism and second wave feminism. Ralf Dahrendorf and Ralph Miliband presented pioneering theories about class conflict and advanced industrial countries. The sociology of religion experienced a resurgence in this decade with new debates about the theses of secularization, globalization, and the definition of religious practice. Theorists such as Lenski and Yinger formulated the 'functional' definition of religion; ask about what religion do than what it in familiar terms. Thus, new institutions and social movements can be examined for their religious role. Marxist theorists keep a close watch on consumerism and capitalist ideology in similar terms. The choice of Antonio Gramsci from Prison Notebooks [1929-1935] was finally published in English during the early 1970s.
In the 1960s and 1970s the so-called post-structuralist and postmodernist theories, utilizing structuralism and phenomenology as much as classical social science, made a considerable impact on the framework of sociological inquiry. Often understood only as an 'after-Modernism' cultural style characterized by intertextuality, pastiche and irony, the sociological analysis of postmodernity has presented a different era related to (1) metanarrative dissolution (especially in the work of Lyotard), and (2) commodity fetishism and 'reflection' of identity with consumption in the final capitalist society (Debord, Baudrillard, Jameson). Postmodernism has also been linked to the rejection of the conception of enlightenment of human subjects by thinkers such as Michel Foucault, Claude LÃÆ' vi vi-Strauss and, to a lesser extent, in Louis Althusser's attempt to reconcile Marxism with anti-humanism. Most theorists associated with the movement actively reject the label, preferring to accept postmodernity as a historical phenomenon rather than an analytical method, if at all. Nevertheless, postmodern self-conscious pieces continue to emerge in the social and political sciences in general.
In the 1980s, theorists outside France tended to focus on globalization, communications, and reflexivity in the 'second stage' of modernity, rather than different new epochs per se. JÃÆ'¼rgen Habermas established a communicative action in reaction to the postmodern challenge to the discourse of modernity, which was informed by both American critical and pragmatic theories. German sociologist Ulrich Beck presented The Risk Society (1992) as an explanation of how the modern nation state became organized. In Britain, Anthony Giddens began to reconcile the recurrent theoretical dichotomy through structuration theory. During the 1990s, Giddens developed work on the challenges of "high modernity", as well as a new 'third way' politics that would greatly affect New Labor in Britain and the Clinton administration in leading US sociologist Zygmunt Bauman wrote extensively on the concept of modernity and postmodernity , especially with regard to the Holocaust and consumerism as a historical phenomenon. While Pierre Bourdieu gained significant critical recognition to continue his work on cultural capital, certain French sociologists, particularly Jean Baudrillard and Michel Maffesoli, were criticized for being confused and relativistic.
Theory of a functionalist system like Niklas Luhmann remains a dominant force in sociology until the end of this century. In 1994, Robert K. Merton won the National Medal of Science for his contribution to the sociology of science. Positivist traditions are very popular to this day, especially in the United States. The two most widely quoted American journals, American Journal of Sociology and the American Sociological Review, publish studies in positivist traditions, with ASR showing greater diversity (the i> British Journal of Sociology , on the other hand , publish articles that are primarily non-positivist). The twentieth century saw an improvement on the quantitative methodology used in sociology. The development of longitudinal studies that follow the same population for many years or decades allows researchers to study long-term phenomena and improve the ability of researchers to infer causality. An increase in the size of the data sets generated by the new survey method is followed by the discovery of new statistical techniques to analyze this data. Such an analysis is usually done with statistical software packages such as SAS, Stata, or SPSS.
Social network analysis is an example of a new paradigm in positivist tradition. The influence of social networking analysis is very widespread in many sub-sociological fields such as economic sociology (see J. Clyde Mitchell, Harrison White, or Mark Granovetter, for example), organizational behavior, historical sociology, political sociology, or sociology. education. There is also a small revival of empirical sociology that is more independent in the spirit of C. Wright Mills, and his study of Power Elite in the United States, according to Stanley Aronowitz.
See also
- Bibliography sociology
- List of sociologists
- Outline of sociology
- Subfield of sociology
- The sociology timeline
- Philosophy of social science
References
Further reading
- Gerhard Lenski. 1982. Human society: Introduction to macrosociology , McGraw Hill Company.
- Nash, Kate. 2010. Contemporary Political Sociology: Globalization, Politics, and Power. Wiley-Blackwell Publishers.
- Samuel William Bloom, Said as Surgical Knife: History of Medical Sociology , University of Oxford Press 2002
- Raymond Boudon Sociological Critical Dictionary . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989
- Craig Calhoun, ed. Sociology in America. Hundred ASA History . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.
- Deegan, Mary Jo, ed. Women in Sociology: Bio-Bibliography Sourcebook, New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.
- A. H. Halsey, History of Sociology in England: Science, Literature, and Society , Oxford University Press 2004 Barbara Laslett (editor), Barrie Thorne (editor), Feminist Sociology: History of Life from Movement , Rutgers University Press 1997
- Levine, Donald N. (1995). Vision of a Sociological Tradition . University Of Chicago Press. ISBN: 0-226-47547-6.
- T.N. Madan, Pathways: an approach to community study in India . New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994
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