William Shakespeare ( SHAYK -speer ; 26 April 1564 (baptized) - April 23, 1616) is a poet, playwright and English actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in English, and a world-renowned playwright. He is often called the English national poet, and "Bard of Avon". His extant works, including collaboration, consist of about 39 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other verses, some uncertain writers. His drama has been translated into every major language, and is more often played than other playwrights.
Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Some time between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of a play company called Lord Chamberlain's Men, who came to be known as the King of Men. At the age of 49 (about 1613), he appears to have retired to Stratford, where he died three years later. Some records of Shakespeare's personal life persist; this has prompted considerable speculation about things such as his physical appearance, his sexuality, his religious beliefs, and whether the works linked to him are, in fact, written by others. These theories are often criticized for failing to note the fact that only a few records survive the vast majority of the common people of that period.
Shakespeare produces most of his works known between 1589 and 1613. The drama was originally mainly comedy and history, and is considered to be some of the best work ever produced in this genre. Then, until about 1608, he wrote most of the tragedies, between them
Many of his plays are published in various editions of quality and accuracy in his life. However, in 1623, two actors and friends from Shakespeare's, John Heminges and Henry Condell, published a more definitive text known as First Folio, a posthumous edition of Shakespeare's dramatic work covering all but two dramas now recognized as hers.. This volume begins with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which the poet carefully praises the playwright in a quote now known as "not age, but forever".
In the 20th and 21st centuries, Shakespeare's works continue to be adapted and rediscovered by new movements in the field of scholarship and performances. His drama remains highly popular and is continuously studied, conducted, and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts around the world.
Video William Shakespeare
Life
Initial life
William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, a successful member of the city council and glover (a glove maker) from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, the daughter of a prosperous landowner. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and was baptized there on April 26, 1564. His actual birth date is still unknown, but traditionally observed on April 23, Saint George's Day. This date, which can be traced to errors made by an 18th-century scholar, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on the same date in 1616. He is the third of eight children, and the eldest son still alive.
Although there is no record of attendance for the defensive period, most biographers agree that Shakespeare might be educated at King's New School in Stratford, a free school rented in 1553, about a quarter mile (400 m) from his home. Grammar schools vary in quality during the Elizabethan era, but the grammar school curriculum is very similar: basic Latin texts are standardized by royal decisions, and schools will provide intensive education in grammar based on Latin classical authors.
At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The Worcester diocese's consistory court issued a marriage certificate on November 27, 1582. The next day, two Hathaway neighbors posted a bond that ensured that no legitimate claim stood in the way of marriage. The ceremony may have been arranged in a hurry because the minister of the Depression Worcester allowed the wedding banns to be read once than usual three times, and six months after the wedding Anne gave birth to a princess, Susanna, was baptized May 26, 1583. Twins, son of Hamnet and daughter Judith, nearly two years later and was baptized February 2, 1585. Hamnet died of an unknown cause at the age of 11 and was buried August 11, 1596.
After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left some traces of history until he was mentioned as part of the London theater scene in 1592. The exception was his appearance on the "complaint bill" of the legal case before the Queen's Bench court in Westminster on Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589. Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as the "lost year" of Shakespeare. The biographers who tried to explain this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare's first biographer, tells the legend of Stratford that Shakespeare fled from town to London to avoid prosecution of a deer hunt in the local squirrel plantation Thomas Lucy. Shakespeare was also supposed to take revenge on Lucy by writing a rough ballad about him. Another 18th-century story makes Shakespeare embark on his theatrical career by noticing the theaters of theater customers in London. John Aubrey reports that Shakespeare is a public school teacher. Some 20th century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as headmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a certain Catholic landowner named "William Shakeshafte" in his will. Small evidence reinforces such stories in addition to the rumors gathered after his death, and Shakeshafte is a common name in the Lancashire area.
London and a theater career
It is not known for certain when Shakespeare began to write, but contemporary alus and recording shows that some of his plays were on London's stage in 1592. At that time, he was well known in London for being attacked in print by playwright Robert Greene in his book Groats-Worth of Wit :
... there's a new Crow that stands up, with our feathers, it's with his Tiger being wrapped in Player's name , assuming he is also able to blow up an empty paragraph as the best of you: and become the absolute
, is in his arrogance the only Shake-scene in a country.
Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene's words, but most agree that Greene accused Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match university-educated writers such as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe, and Greene himself (the so-called "university of mind"). The phrase italicised parodied the line "Oh, the heart of a tiger wrapped in a woman's skin" from Shakespeare Henry VI, Part 3, along with the "Shake-scene", clearly identifying Shakespeare as Greene's target. As used here, Johannes Factotum ("Jack of all trades") refers to a second-level bouncer with the work of others, rather than the more general "universal genius."
Greene's attack is a reference to Shakespeare's earliest surviving work in the theater. Biographers argue that his career may begin at any time from the mid-1580s until before the statement of Greene. After 1594, Shakespeare's drama was performed only by Lord Chamberlain's Men, a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, who soon became a leading playmate in London. After Queen Elizabeth's death in 1603, the company was granted a royal patent by the new King James I, and changed its name to King of Men.
In 1599, the partnership of the company members built their own theater on the south bank of the River Thames, which they named Globe. In 1608, the partnership also took over Blackfriars indoor theater. The remaining records of Shakespeare property purchases and investments indicate that his relationship with the company made him wealthy, and in 1597 he bought the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, invested in part of the parish's tithe. in Stratford.
Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in the quarto edition, beginning in 1594, and in 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title page. Shakespeare continues to act in his own drama and others after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson Works named him on the player list for Every Person in His Humor (1598) and His Fall Sejan (1603). The absence of his name from the 1605 player list for Jonson's Volpone was taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career is almost over. The First Folio 1623, however, calls Shakespeare one of the "Main Actors in all of these Screenings", some of which were first performed after Volpone , although we can not know exactly what role he played. In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that "Good Will" plays the role of "king". In 1709, Rowe left a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father. The next tradition maintains that he also plays Adam on As You Like It , and Chorus at Henry V , even though experts doubt the source of that information.
Throughout his career, Shakespeare split his time between London and Stratford. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare lived in St. John's parish. Helen, Bishopsgate, north of the River Thames. He moved across the river to Southwark in 1599, the same year his company built the Globe Theater there. In 1604, he moved north of the river again, to the northern area of ​​St. Anthony's Cathedral. Paul with lots of nice houses. There, he rented a room from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a woman wig maker and other headgear.
The year later and death
Rowe was the first biographer to record tradition, repeated by Johnson, that Shakespeare retired to Stratford "a few years before his death". He still works as an actor in London in 1608; in answer to the petitions of 1635 people, Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the Blackfriars Theater lease in 1608 from Henry Evans, King's Men "put the cast man" there, "Heminges, Condell, Shakespeare, etc.". However, it may be relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London throughout 1609. Common London playhouses were repeatedly closed during the widespread outbreak (totaling over 60 months of closure between May 1603 and February 1610), meaning there was often no acting work. Retirement from all work was not common at the time. Shakespeare continued to visit London during 1611-1614. In 1612, he was summoned as a witness at Bellott v. Mountjoy , court case about the completion of the marriage of the daughter of Mountjoy, Mary. In March 1613, he bought a guardhouse at the former Blackfriars monastery; and from November 1614, he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall. After 1610, Shakespeare wrote fewer dramas, and nothing was attributed to him after 1613. His last three dramas were collaboration, perhaps with John Fletcher, who succeeded him as a playwright of the King of Man's house.
Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616, at the age of 52 years. He died within a month after signing his will, a document he began by describing himself as "perfect health". There is no contemporary source explaining why or why he died. Half a century later, John Ward, vicar of Stratford, wrote in his notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton, and Ben Jonson held a joyous meeting and, apparently, drank too hard, because Shakespeare died of contracted fever there", not an impossible scenario because Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton. From the respect of his fellow authors, one refers to his relatively sudden death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that you left so fast/From the world stage to the exhausting tomb room."
He survived by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a doctor, John Hall, in 1607, and Judith had married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, two months before Shakespeare's death. Shakespeare signed his last will on March 25, 1616; the next day, his new son-in-law, Thomas Quiney, was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate child by Margaret Wheeler, who died in childbirth. Thomas was ordered by a church court to make general penance, which would cause a lot of shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family.
Shakespeare left most of his inheritance to his eldest daughter Susanna on the condition that she bequeathed it whole to the "first son of her body". The Quiney family had three children, all of whom died unmarried. The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died childless in 1670, ending Shakespeare's direct line. Shakespeare barely mentions his wife, Anne, who may be entitled to one-third of her estate automatically. However, he really wanted to leave my "second best" bed, a legacy that has generated a lot of speculation. Some experts see the testament as an affront to Anne, while others believe that the second best bed is a marriage bed and therefore rich in significance.
Shakespeare was buried in the pulpit of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death. The gravestones carved on the stone slab covering his tomb include a curse against moving his bones, which was carefully avoided during the restoration of the church in 2008:
(Modern spell: Good friend, for God's sake, "/To dig in the dust that is here./Blessed is the one who avoids these stones, And cursed is the one who moves my bones.
Sometime before 1623, a funeral monument was erected in his memory on the north wall, with half his statue in the act of writing. The plaque compares it to Nestor, Socrates, and Virgil. In 1623, simultaneously with the issuance of First Folio, Droeshout's engraving was published.
Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world, including the burial monument at Southwark Cathedral and the Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.
Maps William Shakespeare
Plays
Most playwrights of the time usually collaborated with others at some point, and critics agree that Shakespeare did the same, most of the beginning and end of his career. Some attributions, such as Titus Andronicus and early historical dramas, remain controversial when Two Noble Kinsmen and Cardenio have a good contemporary experience. documentation. Textual evidence also supports the view that some dramas are revised by other authors after their original compositions.
Shakespeare's first recorded work was Richard III and three parts of Henry VI , written in the early 1590s during fashion for historical drama. The Shakespeare drama is difficult to date precisely, however, and the study of texts shows that Titus Andronicus , The Comedy of Errors , The Taming of the Shrew, and The Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to the earliest Shakespeare period. His first history, particularly interesting in the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland , dramatizes the destructive results of weak or corrupt rules and has been interpreted as justification for the origin of the Tudor dynasty. Early dramas were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan playwrights, especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe, by medieval drama tradition, and by the drama Seneca. The Comedy of Errors is also based on the classic model, but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found, although it is associated with a separate game of the same name. and probably derived from folklore. Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona, where two friends seem to approve of rape, the story of Shrew's about taming women's independent spirit by a man sometimes complicates modern critics, directors and audiences.
The classic comedies and early Italian Shakespeare, containing a rugged double plot and proper comic sequence, gave way in the mid-1590s to the most famous romantic comedy atmosphere. A Midsummer Night's Dream is a clever mix of romance, magic fairy, and lower comic scenes. The next comeback of Shakespeare, who is both romantic Venetian merchant , contains the depiction of Shylock's Jewish murder killer, which reflects Elizabethan views but may seem contemptive of modern audiences. The tree and wordplay, Much Ado About Nothing, the charming countryside setting of As You Like It , and the festive lively of Twelfth Night complete the Shakespeare sequence great comedies. After the lyrics of Richard II , written almost entirely in poetry, Shakespeare introduced a comedic prose into the late 1590s, Henry IV, part 1 and , and Henry V . The character becomes more complex and gentle as he shifts adrift between comedy and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and reaches various narratives from his adult work. This period begins and ends with two tragedies: Romeo and Juliet , the famous romantic tragedy of teens, love, and sexually charged deaths; and Julius Caesar - based on Sir Thomas North's translation in 1579 about Plutarch's
At the beginning of the seventeenth century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called "problem game" Measure to Measure , Troilus and Cressida , and Everything Good Ends Well and a number of his famous tragedies. Many critics believe that Shakespeare's greatest tragedy represents his artistic crest. The titular hero of one of Shakespeare's greatest tragedies,
In his last period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragedy and completed three major dramas: Cymbeline , The Winter's Tale, and The Tempest , as well as collaboration , Pericles, Prince of Tire . Unsatisfied with the tragedy, the fourth drama was more serious than comedy in the 1590s, but they ended up with reconciliation and forgiveness of potentially tragic mistakes. Some commentators have seen changes in this mood as evidence of a calm view of life in the Shakespeare section, but it may just reflect the theater's fashion that day. Shakespeare collaborated in the next two dramas, Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen , probably with John Fletcher.
Performance
It is unclear to which company Shakespeare wrote his initial drama. The title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the drama has been acted upon by three different entourages. After the catastrophe of 1592-3, Shakespeare's drama was performed by his own company at the Theater and Curtain in Shoreditch, north of the River Thames. The Londoners flocked to see the first part of Henry IV, Leonard Digges, "Let Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest... and you rare will have a room". When the company found themselves in a dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theater down and used wood to build the Globe Theater, the first theater house built by an actor for the actor, on the south bank of the River Thames in Southwark. The Globe opened in the fall of 1599, with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged. Most of Shakespeare's post-1599 plays were written for the Globe, including Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear.
After Lord Chamberlain's Men was renamed to King's Men in 1603, they entered into a special relationship with the new King James. Despite the patchwork performance record, King's Men featured seven Shakespeare plays in court between 1 November 1604 and 31 October 1605, including two performances of The Merchant of Venice. After 1608, they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theater during the winter and the Globe during the summer. The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean mode for stunning massion staged, allows Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices. In Cymbeline, for example, Jupiter descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting on a hawk: he throws lightning." The ghost drops to his knees. "
Actors in Shakespeare's company include Richard Burbage, William Kempe, Henry Condell and the famous John Heminges. Burbage played a major role in the first show of many of Shakespeare's plays, including Richard III , Hamlet , Othello and King Lear. Popular actor Will Kempe plays the role of Peter on Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry on Much Ado About Nothing , among other characters. He was replaced by around 1600 by Robert Armin, who played roles like Touchstone on As You Like It and the fool in King Lear. In 1613, Sir Henry Wotton notes that Henry VIII "was established with many extraordinary circumstances of splendor and ceremony". However, on June 29, a cannon burned the glob of The Globe and burned the theater to the ground, an event that shows the date of a Shakespeare drama with rare precision.
Textual sources
In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare's friends from King's Men, published First Folio, an edition collected from Shakespeare's drama. It contains 36 texts, including 18 printed for the first time. Many dramas have appeared in the quarto version - thin books made of sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves. There is no evidence to suggest that Shakespeare approved of this edition, called First Folio as "stol'n copy and clandestine copy". Shakespeare also does not plan or expect his works to survive in any form; the works are likely to fade into oblivion but for the spontaneous idea of ​​his friends, after his death, to create and publish the First Folio.
Alfred Pollard mentions some pre-1623 versions as "bad quartos" because of their adaptable, paraphorous or chaotic text, which may have been reconstructed in places from memory. Where some versions of the game survive, each is different from the others. The difference may come from copying or printing errors, from notes by actors or members of the audience, or from Shakespeare's own writing. In some cases, for example, Hamlet , Troilus and Cressida, and Othello , Shakespeare can revise the text between quarto and folio editions. In the case of King Lear , however, while most modern editions really confuse them, the 1623 folio version is quite different from the 1608 quarto that Oxford Shakespeare printed both, arguing that they can not be combined without confusion.
Poems
In 1593 and 1594, when the theater closed due to the plague, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on the sexual themes, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton. In Venus and Adonis , the innocent Adonis rejected Venus's sexual advancement; while at The Rape of Lucrece, the virtuous wife of Lucrece was raped by the lusting Tarquin. Influenced by Ovid's Sonnets
Published in 1609, Sonnets is Shakespeare's last non-dramatic work to be printed. Scholars are not sure when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence shows that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for personal readers. Even before two unauthorized sonnets appeared at The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599, Francis Meres was referred to in 1598 to "Sonnet who jokes among Shakespeare's private friends". Some analysts believe that the published collection follows the sequence that Shakespeare intended. He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about the uncontrollable lust for a married woman with dark skin ("dark woman"), and one about conflicting love for a fair young man ("fair boy"). It remains unclear whether these numbers represent real individuals, or if the writer "I" calls them representing Shakespeare himself, although Wordsworth believes that with the sonnets "Shakespeare opened his heart".
The 1609 edition is dedicated to "Mr. W.H.", credited as "the only begetter" of poetry. It is unknown whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page; It is also not known who Mr. W.H. is, in spite of many theories, or whether Shakespeare even permits this publication. Critics praise Sibets as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time.
Style
Shakespeare's first drama is written in conventional style today. He writes in stylish language that does not always come naturally from the needs of character or drama. The poem depends on a long, sometimes complicated and arrogant metaphor, and its language is often rhetorical - written for actors to express themselves rather than speaking. The great speeches in Titus Andronicus, in the view of some critics, often retain action, for example; and the verse in The Two Gentlemen of Verona has been described as being rigid.
However, Shakespeare soon began to adapt the traditional style to its own purpose. The opening of soliloquy Richard III is rooted in the Vice's own declaration in medieval dramas. At the same time, Richard's alive self-awareness awaits soliloquy of Shakespeare's adult drama. There is no single game that marks the change from traditional style to a more free style. Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career, with Romeo and Juliet probably the best examples of mixing styles. At the time of Romeo and Juliet , Richard II , and Midsummer Night's Dream in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare had begun writing more poetry. He increasingly adjusts his metaphors and drawings to the needs of the drama itself.
Shakespeare's standard form of poetry is an empty stanza, arranged in iambic pentameter. In practice, this means that the poet is usually irregular and consists of ten syllables to one line, pronounced with pressure on each second syllable. The empty verses of the early drama are very different from the later ones. It's often beautiful, but the sentence tends to start, stop, and finish at the end of the line, with monotonous risks. As soon as Shakespeare mastered the traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary his flow. This technique releases new strength and flexibility of poetry in dramas such as Julius Caesar and Hamlet . Shakespeare used it, for example, to convey the turmoil in Hamlet's mind:
After Hamlet , Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, especially in the more emotional part of the late tragedy. The literary critic A. C. Bradley describes this style as "more concentrated, fast, varied, and, in construction, less organized, often spinning or elliptical". In the last phase of his career, Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve this effect. These include run-on lines, irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure and length. In Macbeth , for example, languages ​​sped from one unrelated or similar metaphor: "is that hope drunk/Where do you dress yourself?" (1.7.35-38); "... Too bad, like a naked newborn/stepping over an explosion, or a cherry of heaven, grumbling/After an invisible messenger from the air..." (1.7.21-25). Listeners are challenged to complete the senses. The final story of romance, with the timing changes and surprising plot changes, inspires the last poetic style in which long and short sentences face each other, clauses stacked, subject and object reversed, and words omitted, creating spontaneity effects.
Shakespeare combines the poetic genius with the practical feelings of the theater. Like all playwrights at the time, he dramatized stories from sources such as Plutarch and Holinshed. He reshapes each plot to create some focus and to show as many narrative sides to the audience as possible. The power of this design ensures that the Shakespeare game can survive the translation, cutting and broad interpretation without losing its core. As Shakespeare's mastery grew, he gave his character a clearer and more varied motivation and distinctive speech patterns. She retains the previous style aspect in the drama later. In Shakespeare's final romance, he deliberately returns to a more artificial style, which emphasizes the illusion of theater.
Influence
Shakespeare's work has made a lasting impression on later theater and literature. In particular, it extends the dramatic potential of characterization, plot, language, and genre. Until Romeo and Juliet , for example, romanticism is not seen as a worthy topic for tragedy. Soliloquies have been used primarily to convey information about characters or events, but Shakespeare uses them to explore the character's mind. His work was greatly influenced by later poetry. Romantic poets are trying to revive Shakespeare's verse drama, albeit with little success. Critics George Steiner describes all English drama verses from Coleridge to Tennyson as "a weak variation on the Shakespeare theme."
Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner, and Charles Dickens. The novel of an American singer Herman Melville owes much to Shakespeare; His captain Ahab at Moby-Dick is a classic tragic hero, inspired by King Lear. Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music associated with Shakespeare's works. This includes two operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Otello and Falstaff , which stands critical compared to playing the source. Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including Romantic and Pre-Raphael. Swiss Romantic Artist Henry Fuseli, a friend of William Blake, even translated Macbeth into German. Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud describes Shakespeare's psychology, in particular, of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature.
At the time of Shakespeare, English grammar, spelling, and pronunciation were less standardized than they are today, and the use of their language helped shape modern English. Samuel Johnson quotes it more often than any other author in his book English Dictionary , the first serious work of its kind. Expressions such as "with a hold of breath" ( Merchant of Venice ) and "previous conclusions" ( Othello ) have found their way into daily English conversation.
Important reputation
Shakespeare was not respected in his life, but he received many compliments. In 1598, scholar and writer Francis Meres chose him out of a group of British writers as "the best" in comedy and tragedy. Authors from Parnassus playing at St. John's College, Cambridge numbered him with Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser. In First Folio, Ben Jonson referred to Shakespeare as "the Soul of that age, the applause, the excitement, the magic of our stage", though he says elsewhere that "Shakespeare wants art".
Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century, classical ideas became popular. As a result, critics at that time judged Shakespeare under John Fletcher and Ben Jonson. Thomas Rymer, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing comics tragically. Nevertheless, poet and critic John Dryden highly praised Shakespeare, saying about Jonson, "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare". For decades, Rymer's view persisted; but during the 18th century, critics began responding to Shakespeare in their own way and praising what they call their natural genius. A series of scientific editions of his work, especially Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, add to his growing reputation. In 1800, he was strongly enshrined as a national poet. In the 18th and 19th centuries, his reputation also spread abroad. Among those who championed him were writers Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal, and Victor Hugo.
During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his work in the spirit of German Romanticism. In the 19th century, the critical awe for Shakespeare's genius often bordered on praise. "That King Shakespeare," the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840, "does he not shine, in crowned sovereignty, upon all of us, as the most sublime, the most subtle, yet the strongest of the gathered signs, indestructible ". The Victoria produces his works as a luxury spectacle on a large scale. The playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespearean worship as "bardolatry", claiming that the new naturalism of Ibsen's dramas has made Shakespeare obsolete.
The modernist revolution in art during the early 20th century, away from abandoning Shakespeare, eagerly registered his work in avant-garde service. The Expressionists in Germany and Futuris in Moscow increased the production of their dramas. The Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht designed the epic theater under the influence of Shakespeare. Poet and critic T.S. Eliot opposes Shaw that Shakespeare's "superiority" actually makes him truly modern. Eliot, along with G. Wilson Knight and New Criticism school, led the movement toward a closer reading of Shakespeare's image. In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for Shakespeare's "post-modern" study. In the 1980s, Shakespeare's study was open to movements such as structuralism, feminism, New Historisism, African American studies, and strange studies. In a comprehensive reading of Shakespeare's work and comparing the achievements of Shakespeare literature with achievements among prominent figures in philosophy and theology as well, Harold Bloom commented that "Shakespeare is greater than Plato and than St. Augustine." He wrapped us because we see with its basic perception. "
Work
Drama classification
Shakespeare's works include 36 dramas printed in First Folio 1623, listed by their folio classification as comedy, history, and tragedy. Two plays not included in the First Folio, The Two Noble Kinsmen and Pericles, Prince of Tire, are now accepted as part of the canon, with current scholars agreeing that Shakespeare made the main contribution to the writing of both. No Shakespearean poems are included in the First Folio.
At the end of the 19th century, Edward Dowden classified the final four comedies as a romance, and although many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies, the term Dowden is often used. In 1896, Frederick S. Boas coined the term "problem game" to describe four dramas: Everything Good Ends Well , Measuring Size , Troilus and Cressida , and Hamlet . "Drama as singular in theme and temperament can not be strictly called comedy or tragedy", he writes. "Therefore, we can borrow the exact phrase from today's theater and group them together when the Shakespeare issue is played." The term, much debated and sometimes applied to other dramas, remains in use, although Hamlet is definitively classified as a tragedy.
Speculation about Shakespeare
Authorship
About 230 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the papers attributed to him. Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward de Vere, the 17th Earl of Oxford. Several "group theories" have also been proposed. Only a small proportion of scholars believe that there is reason to question traditional attribution, but interest in the subject, especially Oxford's Shingpeare authorship theory, continues into the 21st century.
Religion
Some scholars claim that members of the Shakespeare family are Catholic, at a time when practicing Catholicism in Britain is against the law. Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, must have come from a pious Catholic family. The strongest evidence may be the statement of the Catholic faith signed by his father, John Shakespeare, discovered in 1757 in his former shrouds on Henley Street. However, the document is now gone and scholars are different for its authenticity. In 1591, authorities reported that John Shakespeare had missed the church "for fear of proceedings for debt", a common Catholic reason. In 1606, the name of Princess Susanna appeared on the list of people who failed to attend Easter Communion in Stratford. As some scholars have noted, whatever his personal views, Shakespeare corresponds to the official religion of the state. Also, Shakespeare will use a Protestant formula, and he is a confirmed member of the Church of England, where he is married, his children are baptized, and where he is buried. Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare's religious beliefs. Scholars find good evidence for and against Shakespeare's Catholicism, Protestantism, or lack of confidence in his play, but the truth may be impossible to prove.
Sexuality
Some details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known. At 18, he married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, who was pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children, was born six months later on May 26, 1583. For many centuries, some readers have suggested that Shakespeare sonnets are autobiographical, and show them as proof of love for a young man. Others read the same passage as an intense expression of friendship rather than romantic love. The 26 so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets, addressed to married women, are taken as evidence of a heterosexual liaison.
Portrait
There is no contemporary description written about the surviving Shakespeare's physical appearance, and there is no evidence to suggest that he has ever assigned a portrait, so the Droeshout engraving, which Ben Jonson approved as a good resemblance, and his Stratford monument provides the best evidence of his performance. From the 18th century, the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits sparked claims that various surviving images depict Shakespeare. The request also led to the production of some fake portraits, as well as misattributions, repainting, and re-tagging other people's portraits.
See also
- Outline of William Shakespeare
- British Renaissance Theater
- Spelling of Shakespeare's name
- World Shakespeare Bibliography
Notes and references
Note
References
Source
External links
- Shakespeare Documenting an online exhibition documenting Shakespeare in its own time
- William Shakespeare at EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica
- Shakespeare Internet Edition
- Digital Folger Text
- Open Source Shakespeare works complete, with search engine and concordance
- Four First Folios at Miami University Library, digital collection
- Shakespeare Quartos Archive
- Severeta Shakespeare, poetry, and text at Poets.org
- Shakespeare's words are the online version of the best-selling word list and best-selling secretary
- Shakespeare and Music
- Shakespeare's Will of The National Archives
- The work by William Shakespeare is set to music: free scores at Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
- Shakespeare's Birthplace Trust
- William Shakespeare at IMDb
- Works by William Shakespeare at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about William Shakespeare in the Internet Archive
- Works by William Shakespeare on LibriVox (public domain audiobook)
- Finding Literature: Shakespeare in the British Library
- William Shakespeare in the British Library
- "Shakespeare and Literary Criticism", a BBC Radio 4 discussion with Harold Bloom and Jacqueline Rose ( In Our Time <4 March 1999).
- "Shakespeare's Work" BBC Radio 4 discussion with Frank Kermode, Michael Bagdanov and Germaine Greer ( In Our Time , May 11, 2000).
- "Shakespeare's Life", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Katherine Duncan-Jones, John Sutherland and Grace Ioppolo ( In Our Time <15, 2001).
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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