Esperanto grammar

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Esperanto is a built-in language. Because of the very regular grammar, it is often said that Esperanto is easier to learn than any other language.

Each part of the speech has a unique suffix: the noun ends with -o ; adjective with -a ; present-tense verbal verbs with -so , and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with the vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", although there are more in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto has about 900 meaningful words, but is quickly expanded.

reference rules include Full Grammar Analysis (en) (English: Complete Analytical Grammar ) by KÃÆ'¡lmÃÆ'¡n Kalocsay and Gaston Waringhien, and Complete Grammar Handbook (English: Esperanto Grammar Complete Handbook ) by Wennergren.

Video Esperanto grammar

Ringkasan gramatikal

Esperanto has agglutinative morphology, no grammatical type, and simple verbal and nominal inflections. The verbal suffix indicates four moods, where the indicative has three word forms, and is derived for some aspects, but does not agree with the grammatical person or the number of the subject. The noun and adjective have two cases, nominative/oblique and accusative/allative, and two numbers, singular and plural; personal pronouns form a person behaving like a genitive case. Adjectives generally agree with nouns in terms and numbers. In addition to showing a direct object, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and adverbs to indicate the purpose of a movement, or to replace a particular foreground; nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows flexible word order reflecting the flow of information and other pragmatic concerns, such as in Russian, Greek and Latin.

Maps Esperanto grammar

Script and pronunciation

Esperanto uses the Latin alphabet with six additional letters -?,?,?,?,?, And? Ã, - and do not use letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested Italy as a model for Esperanto pronunciation.

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Articles

Esperanto has one definite article, la , which is unchanged. This is similar to "the" English.

La is used:

For identifiable and calculated objects:

Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.

"I found the bottle and opened the lid."

For individual representatives:

La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.

"Cheetahs are the fastest animals."

La abeloj havas villain, sed ili ne ta? gas por karesi.

"Bees have feathers, but not good for urination."

For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as language names:

la blua

"the blue"

la angla

"English" (ie "English")

For possessive pronouns, when certain:

La mia bluas, la via ru? as.

"Mine is blue, yours red."

This article is also used for proprietary body parts and family terms that can not be revoked, where English will use possessive adjectives:

Ili tran? It is la manon.

"They cut off their hands." [one hand each]

The la article, like the demonstrative adjective tiu (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the noun phrase.

No article is needed grammatically: homo means "human" or "human", depending on the context, and also the compound word homoj means "human" or "some human". The words iu and unu (or their plural iuj and unuj ) can be used like an unlimited article , but they are closer in meaning to "some" and "certain" than English "a". The use of unu is in English "a" when "a" indicates a particular individual.

Speech section

Suffix -o , -a , -e , and -i indicates that a word is a noun, verbal, verbal, and infinitive work, respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing this suffix. The derivation of the word vidi (for viewing) is vida (visual), vide (visually), and vido (vision).

Each root word has a section attached to the words: nominal, adjective, verbal, or adverbial. This should be explicitly remembered and affects the use of the part-of-speech suffix. By the adjective or the root of the words, the nominal suffix -o denotes the abstraction: parolo (a speech act, someone says) from the root of the paroli (to speak); belo (beauty) from the adjective root defend (beautiful); whereas with the noun, the nominal suffix only indicates a noun. The par or verbal root can also be modified with the adjective adjectives -a : re? A (royal), from the nominal root re? O (a king); parola (spoken). Various verbal edges mean being [__] when added to the adjective root: buy (be beautiful); and with the nominal root means "to act as a" noun, "to use" noun, etc., depending on the root semantics: re? i (ruled). There are a few adverbial roots, so most words ending in -e are from: bele (beautiful). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a prepositional phrase: parole (by speech, verbal); vide (by viewing, visually); re? e (like king, royally).

The meaning of the parts of the utterances depends on the inherent part of the speech from the roots that they applied. For example, brosi (for brushing) is based on the nominal root (and therefore listed in the modern dictionary under the brooch o ), while > combi (to comb) is based on the root word (and therefore listed under komb i ). Change the suffix to -o, and the similar meaning of brosi and the combi is distorted: broso is brush, instrument name, while combo is combing, the name of an action. That is, changing the word combi (into com) into a noun only creates a name for the action; for the tool name, suffix -ilo is used, which produces words for the instrument from the root of the words: kombilo (comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root of broso (brush) into a verb gives an action associated with the noun, brosi (brushing). For the action name, the -ado suffix will change the derived verb into a noun: brosado (brushing). Similarly, the abstraction of the nominal root (converting it to an adjective and then returning to a noun) requires the suffix -eco, as in infaneco (childhood), but abstraction of adjectives or root words only require a nominal -o: belo (beauty). However, excessively embedded forms such as beleco are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with -e, but with the end of an obscure speech -a? . Not all words ending in -a? is an adverb, and most annotations end with -a? has other functions, such as hodia? > "today" [nouns or adverbs] or ankora? "not yet, still" [linking words or adverbs]. About a dozen other adverbs are empty roots, like nun "now", tro "too, too much", excluding adverbs among correlatives. (See special esperanto adverbs.)

Other parts of speech occur as empty roots, with no special suffix. This is the preposition (al "to"), conjunction (kaj "and"), interjection (ho "oh"), number "two"), and the pronoun (mi "I" - Final -i found in the pronoun instead of the suffix, but part of the root ). There are also some grammatical "particles" that fit neatly into categories not, and which generally have to precede the words they modify, such as ne (not), anka? (also), nur (only), e? (flat).

Names and adjectives

The suffix -j follows a noun or an adjective suffix -o or -a generates a plural word. Without these suffixes, computable nouns are considered singular. The direct object takes the suffix of accusative case -n, that runs after the plural suffix. (The resulting sequence -ojn rhymes with English coin, and -ajn rhymes with well.)

The adjective agrees with the noun. That is, they are plural if the nouns they modify are plural, and accusative if the noun they modify is accusative. Compare bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn (good day/day). This requirement allows for word-free noun adjectives and adjective adjectives, even when two adjacent noun phrases in the subject-of-the-verb object or verb-the clause subject:

He knabino feli? a n knabo n kisis (the girl kissed a happy boy)

He knabino feli? knabo n kisis (happy girl kissing a boy).

The agreement describes the syntax in other ways as well. The adjective takes the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if the noun is all singular:

ru? a j domo kaj a? to (red house and car [red])

ru? domo kaj a? to (red house and car).

A predictive adjective does not take the accusative case suffix even when the nouns it modifies:

mi farbis la pordo n ru? a n (I am painting a red door)

mi farbis la pordo n ru? a (I am painting a red door).

Pronouns

There are three types of pronouns in Esperanto: personal (vi "you plural"), demonstrative (tio "that", iu "someone" ), and relatively/interogative (kio "what"). According to the fifth rule of Fundamento de Esperanto :

5. Person's pronouns are: mi , "I"; vi , "you", "you"; li , "he"; ? I , "he"; ? I , "that"; si , "self"; ni , "we"; or , "they"; oni , "one", "person", (French "on").

Private person

The Esperanto system personal pronoun is similar to the English system, but with the addition of a reflexive pronoun.

^ Ã,¹ Zamenhof introduces a single second person pronoun ci for use in translations of the language where TV differences are important, and added it in Two Libro in 1888 explaining that "this word is only found in the dictionary, in the language itself is almost never used". It has never been used extensively, even by Zamenhof himself, who did not include it as a pronoun in the 5th Fundamentals rule and in his 28th Lingva Respondo published on in 1908, it is recommended to only use vi . Normal use is to use vi regardless of number or formality. However, especially in some circles, people have started using ci in practical speech.

Personal pronouns take the accusative suffix -n as a noun: min , lin (dia), ? In (him). The possessive adjective is formed with the adjective suffix -a: mia , (i), ? He (his), nia (us). It agrees with their noun like any other adjective: ni salutis liajn amikojn (we greet his friends). Esperanto does not have a separate form for possessive pronouns; this notion is generally (though not always) indicated by a definite article: la mia (mine).

Reflexive pronouns are used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer back to the subject, usually only to a third person and unlimited:

li lavis sin "he washes" (alone)

ili lavis sin "they wash" (alone or each other)

li lavis lin "he washes it" (others)

li man? is sian panon "he ate his bread" (his own bread)

li man? is lian panon "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

Indefinite speech is used when making general statements, and is often used where English will have the subject it with a passive verb,

oni diras, to... "One word is...", meaning: "they say it..." or "it says that..."

With an "impersonal" verb in which there is no goods or action at all, no pronouns are used:

pluvas "rain, rain, rain".

Rain falls by itself, therefore "it" is not used to it.

? I ("that", a neutral third person) is mostly used with items that have a physical body. Zamenhof proposes that the pronoun can also be used as a third person pronoun (gender neutral), meaning to be used when the sex of an individual is unknown or when the speaker simply does not want to clarify gender. However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular use it is usually only used when referring to children:

La infano estor ploranta ,? ar? I volas man? me "the child was crying, wanting to eat".

When talking about adults or people in general, in popular use it is much more common for demonstrative and pronounic adjectives ("familiar objects or people") to be used in such situations. It reflects a language like Japanese, but it is not a method that can always be used. For example, in a sentence

Iu? "Someone just said that thing/person is hungry",

the word will be understood to refer to someone other than the person who speaks (such as the English or pronouns ) but also refers to people ), so it can not be used instead of ? i , li or ? i.

Another variant

Demonomina is demonstrative and relatively part of the correlative system, and is described in the article. The pronoun is a form that ends with -o (simple pronoun) and -u (adjective pronoun). Their accusative case is formed in -n, but the genitive case ends with the same -es, for singular and plural and does not take an accusative sign. Compare the nominative phase of lia domo (the house) and the domo bond (the house, the person's house) with plural lia j domo j (home) and bind the domo j (home one's house, house of the people), and with the accusative genitive lia n domo n and domo bond n .

Preposition

Although Esperanto's order of words is quite free, the foregoing word must come at the beginning of a noun phrase. Whereas in languages ​​like German, the prepositions may require nouns in various cases (accusative, dative, and so on), in Esperanto all prepositions are nominative: por Johano (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and another replaced by accusative.

The prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When there is no correct preposition, an unlimited preposition je should be used:

ili iros je la tria de majo (they will go on the third of May: "on" is not entirely true).

Alternatively, accusative can be used without prepositions:

ili iros la tria n de majo.

Note that although the triangle is in the accusative, de majo (May) is still a prepositional phrase, and so the noun majo remains in the nominative case.

The frequent use of accusatives is to replace al (to) to indicate the direction or purpose of motion (allative construction). This is very common when otherwise there will be a double preposition:

la kato? asis la monso en la domo (cat chasing mouse inside the house)

She kato? asis la monsoon en la domo n (cat chasing the mouse to the house).

The accusative/allative can stand for other prepositions as well, especially when they have a vague meaning that adds little to the clause. Description, with or without a suffix case, is often used instead of the preposition phrase:

li iris al sia hejmo (he goes to his house)

li iris hejme n (he goes home)

Both por and pro often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish for the purpose (looking forward in time, or causing: por ) and for a reason (look to the past, or caused by: pro ): To choose por your friend means to vote with their name on it, whereas to select pro your friends will mean picking in their place or as requested.

The most distinct prepositions of English use are probably de , which corresponds to English from, off, and (done) by :

libro de Johano (John 's book s )

li venis de la butiko (he came from the store)

mordita de hundo (bitten by dog)

However, the English of corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions as well: de, el (from, made from), and da (quantity, unity of form and content):

tablo el ligno (table of wood)

glaso da vino (glass wine )

listo da condition? oj de la kandidatoj (list of the terms of candidate)

The latter, da , is a Slavic semantic and difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.

Sometimes new prepositions are created. Since empty roots can indicate prepositions or repetitions, removing grammatical suffixes from other parts of speech can be used to obtain prepositions or interruptions. For example, from fari (to do, to make) we get the preposition far (done by).

Verbs

All regular verbal inflections. There are three forms of words, all of which are in the indicative mood. Other moods are infinitive, conditional, and jussive. There is no difference in aspects required by grammar, but the derivational expression of Aktionsart is common.

Verbs do not change the shape according to the subject. me, we, and he are just mi estas, ni estas, and li estas, respectively. Personal subject not used: pluvas (rain); estas muso en la domo (there are mice at home).

Most verbs are inherently transitive or intransitive. Like the inherent part of the root talk, this is not visible from the verb form and should be remembered. Transitivity changed with suffix -ig - (transitivizer/cause) and -i? - (intransitivizer/middle voice):

akvo bolas je cent gradoj (boiling water at 100 degrees)

ni bol ig as la akvo n (we boil water).

Verbal paradigm

Tenses has a distinctive vocal. A indicates the present tense, i of the past, and the o of the future.

Verbal form can be illustrated with root esper - (hope):

esperi (hope)

esperas (hope, hope)

esperis (hope, hope)

esperos (will hope, will hope)

esperu (please!)

esperus (hope, hope)

The verb can be made emphatically with particles ja (indeed): mi ja esperas (I hope), mi ja esperis (I do hope).

Hold

As in English, Esperanto presents a strain to be used for general statements such as "flying bird" ( la birdoj flugas ).

The future of Esperanto is true tense, used whenever the future is intended. For example, in English "(I will give it to you) when I see you" verb "see" in the present form in spite of its future; in Esperanto, a strained future is required: (Mi donos? in al vi) kiam mi vidos vin .

Esperanto is relatively tense. This is different from English, where tense is past, present, or future when speaking: In Esperanto, the verbs of subordinate verbs are anterior or posterior at the time of the main verb. For example, "John says that he will go" is in Esperanto Johano diris, to li iros (lit., "John says that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go somewhere in the future from now (like "John says that he will go" in English), but when he says this, his journey is still in the future.

Mood

Conditional mood is used for expressions like se mi povus, mi irus (if i can, i will go) and se est est vi, mi irus (if i you, i will go).

The jussive atmosphere, used for expectations and demands, and serves as a must and subjunctive:

Iru! (Continue!)

Mi petis, ke li venu. (I asked them to come in.)

Li parolu. (Let him talk.)

By iru. (Come on.)

Benu? am i doma? at. (Take care of this bad house.)

Mia filino belu! (Hopefully my child is beautiful!)

Copula

The verbs esti (be) are copula ("X is Y") and existential verbs ("exist"). As a copula that links two noun phrases, it does not cause accusative cases. Therefore, unlike situations with other verbs, word order with esti can be an important semantic: comparing hundoj estas personoj (dogs are people) and personoj estas hundoj i> (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace esti -plus-adjectives with verbs: la? Ielo estas blua or la? Ielo bluas (blue sky). This is a change of style rather than grammatical in the language, because a more economical verbal form is always found in poetry.

Participant

Participants are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:

• three aspects: past (or "perfect"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")

time

• two votes: active (perform action) and passive (accept action)

Participants represent aspects by retaining vocals from the corresponding verbal tense: i , a , o . In addition to bringing in aspects, participants are the primary means of representing sound, either by nt or t following the vowels (see next section).

Adjectival participles

The basic principle of the participants can be illustrated with the verb fali (fall). Imagine cartoon characters running from the cliff. Before the characters fall, they are fal o nta (almost fall). When they fall, they fal a nta fal i nta (fall).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with transitive verbs haki (for cutting). Imagine a carpenter approaching a tree with an ax, intending to cut it. He is the right ont a (will cut) and the tree is rights ot a (to be chopped). While swinging the ax, he is the ant a (cut) and the rights in a (chopped). After the tree falls, it is the right int a (minced) and the rights tree a (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in numbers and letters, just like any other adjective:

ili? paris la arbojn hakotajn (they prevent trees to be felled ).

Compound compound

A compound form is formed by adjectives adjectives plus esti (become) as auxiliary verbs. Participants reflect aspects and sounds, while the verb brings tension:

• Present progressive: mi estas kaptanta (I catch [something]), mi estas kaptata ( I was caught)
• Perfectly present: mi estas kaptinta (I have captured [something]), mi estas kaptita (I have arrested, I was caught)
• Present candidates: mi estas kaptonta (I will catch/almost capture), mi estas kaptota (I will captured/will be captured)

It is not used as often as their English equivalent. To "I go ing to the store", you will usually use a simple gift mi iras in Esperanto.

The tense and mood esti can be changed in this compound tenses:

mi estis kaptinta (I have arrested)

mi estus kaptonta (I will catch it soon)

mi estos kaptanta (I will catch).

Although such periphrastic constructions are familiar to speakers of European languages, the choice to include [ esti adjectives] into the verb is often seen for participatory adjectives:

mi estas kaptinta or mi captintas (I have captured)

mi estis kaptinta or mi kaptintis (I have captured)

The active synthetic forms are:

Infinitive and jusif forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. Some of these forms, especially -usus and -top , enter general usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.

Nominal participles

Participants can be converted to an annotation or noun by replacing an adjective suffix -a with -e or -o. This means, in Esperanto, some noun may be reflected for tension.

The nominal partition shows the participating in the action determined by the root of the words. For example, esperinto is "hoper" (past tense), or hope.

Adverbial participles

Adverbial participles are used with no subject clauses:

Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen (After catching the ball, he starts to run for the goal).

Conditional and inactive (unofficial)

Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be expanded to include conditional participle, with vowel u (-unt-, -ut-). If, for example, in our tree felling example, woodsman finds that the tree has been spiked and therefore can not be felled, it will become hakunta and the tree hakuta (he, the person who "cut", and the tree, which "will be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb prezidi (for presiding). Right after the recalculation of the 2000 US presidential election:

• President Bill Clinton was still a nto (current president) of the United States,
• President-elect George W. Bush declared prezid o nto (presidential candidate),
• The previous president George H. W. Bush was a prezid i nto (former president), and
• the candidate competing for Al Gore is preferring u nto (the presidential candidate - that is, if the recalculation is different).

The nautical-neutral word prezid e nto is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the prezidi verb.

Negation

The statement was made negative by using ne or one of the negative correlations (neni -) . Typically, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

Mi ne faris ion ajn. I have not done anything.

Two negatives in the clause cancel each other, with the result being a positive sentence.

Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion. Not that I did not do anything. I did something.

The word ne appears before it omits:

Mi ne skribis tion (I did not write it)

Ne mi skribis tion (I did not write it)

Mi skribis ne tion (That's not what I wrote)

The latter will often be rearranged as ne tion mi skribis depending on the information flow.

Question

The "Wh" question is asked with one of the interrogative/relative (ki - ) correspondents. They are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence, but different word commands are allowed for stress:

Li scias, kion vi faris (He knows what you are doing.)

Kion vi faris? (What are you doing?)

Vi faris kion? (you did what?)

Yes/no questions marked with conjunction ? U (what):

Mi ne scias ,? u li venos (I do not know if he will come)

? u li venos? (Will she come?)

Such questions can be answered jes (yes) or ne (not) in European mode align with the polarity of the answer, or ? Uste (true) or mal? uste (incorrectly) in Japanese mode aligns with the polarity of the question:

? u vi iris ir? (Did not you go?)

- Ne, mi ne iris (No, I do not go); - Jes, mi iris (Yes, I go)

-? uste, mi ne iris (Right, I do not go); - Mal? uste, sliced ​​noodles (Wrong, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word sequence as statements.

Conjunctions

The Basic Esperanto Conjunction is kaj (both/and), a? (either/or), nek (not/not), se (if), ? u (whether/or), sed (but), anstata? (not), chrome (besides, in addition), kiel (like, as), to (that). Like a preposition, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon (I saw her and her friend)

Estis nek hele nek agrable (not clear [funny] or fun)

? u kaprico ,? u pro natura lingvo-evoluo (either for fun, or by natural language development)

Li volus, to ni iru (he wants us to go)

However, unlike the preposition, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from Don Harlow:

tractist min kiel princon (He treats me like a prince: that is, because he will treat a prince)

li tractis min kiel princo (He treats me like a prince: that is, as a prince will treat me)

Interjections

The injection may come from a bare affix or root: oak! (continue!), From the perfect prefix; um (um, er), of unspecified/unclear suffix; checks! (Shit!), from feki (for defecation).

Word formation

The morphology of Esperanto derivatives uses a large number of lexical and affixed grammars (prefixes and suffixes). This, together with compounding, reduces the burden of language memory, as they allow for the expansion of a small number of root roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root vid - (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: view, view, blind, sight, visual, visible, nonvisual , invisible, unsightly, sight, view, vista, panorama, jelly etc., although there are also separate esperanto roots for some of these concepts.

Numbers

Numbers

Angka-angka kardinal adalah:

nul (nol)

unu (satu)

du (dua)

tri (tiga)

kvar (empat)

kvin (lima)

ses (enam)

sep (tujuh)

ok (delapan)

na? (sembilan)

dek (sepuluh)

sen (seratus)

mil (seribu)

This is a grammatical number, not a noun, and thus does not take the accusative case ending. However, unu (sometimes just unu ) is sometimes used adjectives or demonstratively, meaning "certain", and in such cases it may take a plural affix -j, as pronoun terms tiu :

unu j homo j

"certain people";

ili kuris unu j post la aliaj

"they run some by another".

In such use unu is irregular because it does not take the accusative remedy -n in singular form, but in plural form:

it n unu ideo n

"some specific ideas",

but

multiple objects entered in one jn hand jn , others in the other hand

"some objects go into certain hands, others to other hands".

Additionally, when counting down, the final u of unu can be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:

Un '! Du! Tri! Kvar!

Higher number

In numbers outside the thousands, the international roots of millions (million) and miliardo (miliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A billion in most English speaking countries different from billion in most other countries (10 ⁹ vs. 10 ¹² each, that is, one million million vs. million). The international root biliono is also ambiguous in Esperanto, and is no longer used for this reason. Unambiguous systems based on adding Esperanto -iliono endings to numbers are usually used instead, sometimes coupled with the second end -iliardo:

10 ⁶ : miliono

10 ⁹ : miliardo (or mi milionoj )

10 ¹² : duiliono

10 ¹⁵ : duiliardo (or mil duilionoj )

10 ¹⁸ : triiliono

10 ²¹ : triiliardo (or mi triilionoj )

etc.

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numbers, and therefore can not directly modify the noun: mi homojn (a thousand people [accusative]) but milionon da homoj (one million people [accusative]).

Compound numbers and derivatives

Numbers are written together as a word when its value is multiplied, and separately when its value is added ( dudek 20, dec du 12, dudek du 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjective suffix -a, quantity with the nominal suffix -o, multiples by -obl -, fraction with -on - , collectively with -op - , and repetition with root -foj - .

sesen sepdek kvin (675)

tria (third [as in first, second, third ])

trie (third)

dudeko (score [20])

duobla (double)

kvarono (quarter, quarter)

duope (by pairs)

dufoje (twice)

The po particles are used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of ​​distributing certain items to each group member. As a result, the @ logogram is not used (except in the email address, of course):

mi donis al ili po tri pomojn or pomojn mi donis al ili po tri (I give [them] three apples each).

Note that the po particle forms a phrase with the number tri and not the preposition for the noun phrase tri pomojn, so as not to prevent the grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

Comparison

Comparison is made with adverbial correlatives tiel... kiel (as... as), adverbial root pli (more) and plej (mostly) , prefix antonym mal -, and preposition ol (of):

mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi (I write as good as you)

tiu estas pli bona ol tiu (this one is better than that)

tio estas la plej bona (that's the best)

la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via (mine is cheaper than yours)

The implied comparisons are made with tre (very) and tro (too many).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portion" and "All the better!" translated using ju and des in place of "the":

Ju pli da homoj, des malpli grandaj la porcioj (The more people, the smaller the portion)

Des pli bone! (All the better!)

Word order

Esperanto has a fairly flexible word sequence. However, word order plays a role in Esperanto's grammar, even if its role is much lower than in English. For example, negative particles ne generally appear before the element is negated; Rejecting a verb has the effect of nullifying the whole clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb itself and negating the clause):

mi ne iris 'I do not go'

mi ne iris, mi revenis 'I do not go, I'm back'

ne mi iris or iris ne mi 'not me goin'

mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen 'I went not to the shop but went home'.

However, when all clauses are negotiable, ne may be left to the last:

mi iris ne 'I'm not'.

The last sequence reflects a typical topic-commentary sequence (or theme-rheme): Known information, topics being discussed, first introduced, and what people say about it follows. (I do not go: For my absence, nothing.) For example, another command, ne iris mi , will show that the possibility of not going is under discussion, and mi is given as examples of people who do not go.

Comparing:

Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo

'Last year I was vacationing in Italy' (Italy is where I go on vacation)

En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare

'I was vacationing in Italy last year' (last year when I went)

En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis

'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (vacation is the reason I go)

En Italujo pasintjare ferryis mi

(I am the one who went)

Noun phrase

In a noun phrase, either the noun-noun or the noun-adjective commands can occur, although the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numbers and demonstratives, with numeral-noun and demonstrative-noun being the norm, as in English.

blua? ielo 'blue sky'

tiu? ielo 'sky it'

tiu blua? ielo 'the blue sky'

sep bluaj? ieloj 'seven blue skies'

Order adjectives more freely. With simple adjectives, adjectives-adjectives dominate, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, long or complex adjectives usually appear after the noun, in some cases parallel to the structure in English, as in the second example below:

homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara 'a petty and very greedy person'

viza? o plena de cikatroj 'face full of scars'

ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also usually occur after the noun correlative. Again, this is one of those situations where adjectives come after the noun in English:

okazis io stranga 'something strange happened'

ne? io brilanta estas diamanto 'not everything shining is diamond'

Changing the order of words here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative nenio "nothing":

li man? is an ethan nenion 'he does not eat a bit'

li man? is etan nenion 'he ate a little bit of nothing'

With a few words in the phrase, the sequence is usually demonstrative/pronoun-numeral- (adjective/noun):

two of my good friends ~ two of my good friends 'two of my best friends'.

Namun, artikel la mendahului phrase kata benda:

the blue? ie "langit biru"

In the prepositional phrase, the preposition is necessary to come in front of the noun phrase (ie, even before the article la ), though it is usually replaced by rotating the noun into an adverb:

al la? ielo 'to the sky' or ? ielen 'skywards', never *? ielo al

Constituent orders

Constituent orders in clauses are generally free, apart from popular clauses.

The default order is subject-verb-object, although any order can occur, with subjects and objects distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by the foregoing:

la hundo? it looks like 'dogs are chasing/hunting cats'

It looks? asis la hundo

? asis la hundo la katon

? asis la katon la hundo

Why is it visible? asis

He looks like a person? asis

The hope of the topic-comment command (theme-rima) applies here, so the context will affect the order of words: in la katon? Asis la hundo , cats are a topic of conversation, and dogs are news; at la hundo la katon? asis , dogs are a topic of conversation, and that is the act of chasing it is news; and on ? asis la hundo la katon , chasing action has become a topic of discussion.

Konteks diperlukan untuk mengetahui apakah

the dog? Does the cat in the? arden

means the dog chasing a cat that is in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chasing a cat. This may be disimpiguation with

la hundo? asis la katon, kiu estis en la? ardeno

'Dog chasing cat, who is in the garden'

dan

in the? arden, the dog? Asis the cat

'Di kebun, anjing mengejar kucing'.

Tentu saja, jika ia mengejar kucing di ke kebun, kasus 'kebun' akan berubah:

the dog? Does the cat in the? ardeno n , in the? ardeno n the dog? Asis the cat , dll.

However, within the clauses that are copulative, there are restrictions. Copulas are words like esti 'be', i? I 'to', resti 'fixed', and ? Ajni 'appears', in which noun phrase does not take accusative case. In such cases only two orders are commonly found: noun-copula predicates and, more rarely, predicate-copula-nouns.

Generally, if the characteristic of the noun is being explained, the choice between the two commands is not important:

sova? a estas la vento 'wild is the wind', la vento estas sova? a 'wild wind'

However, la vento sova? A estate is not clear, at least in writing, as it may be interpreted as 'wild wind', letting the reader ask, 'what?'.

Attributive phrases and clauses

In the above sentence, la hundo? Asis la katon, kiu estis en la? Ardeno 'dog chasing cat, who is in the garden', relative pronoun ciu 'Which' is limited to the position after the noun 'cat'. In general, relative clauses and attributive preposition phrases follow the nouns they modify.

Attributive prepositional phrase, which depends on noun, including genetics ( la libro de Johano 'John' book) and la kato en la? Ardeno 'cat in the park' in the example above. Their order can not be canceled: either * la de Johano libro or * la en la? Ardeno kato is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases that depend on the verb, and which can be moved: either ? Asis en la? Ardeno and en la? Ardeno? Asis is accepted to be 'pursued in the garden'.

The relative clauses are similar, because they are attributive and subject to the same order of constraints, except that instead of being linked to the foregoing, the two elements are linked by relative pronouns like cue 'that':

fu? is it kato, kiun? me? asses 'cats who are pursuing escape'

mi vidis la hundon, kiu? it looks like 'I see a dog catching a cat'

Note that adjacent adjacent nouns and pronouns do not agree in this regard. Rather, their case depends on their relationship with each verb. However, they agree on the amount:

fu? is la kato j , kiu j n? I? asis 'cat s escaped escape'

The sequence of other words is possible, as long as the relative pronoun remaining close to the noun depends on:

fu? is it kato, kiun? asis? I 'a cat who is pursuing escape'

vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon? 'I see dogs catching cats'

Clause order

Coordinate clauses allow for flexible word order, but tend to be icons. For example, at

la hundo? asis la katon kaj la kato fu? is 'dog chasing cat and cat escape',

the conclusion is that the cat flees after the dog starts chasing her, not that the dog is chasing after a runaway cat. For the last reading, the clause sequence will be reversed:

la kato fu? is, kaj la hundo? asis? at 'the cat ran away, and the dog chased him'

This distinction is lost in a subordinate clause such as the relative clause in the previous section:

la hundo? asis la katon, kiu fu? is 'dog chasing cat (,) escaping'

In written English, coma disrupt two readings, but both usually have a coma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are also limited. They follow the conjunction to 'it', as in,

Mi estas certa, to vi havos brilan sukceson 'I am sure you will have a brilliant success'.

Non-Indo-European aspects

The vocabulary, syntax, and semantics of Esperanto come largely from the Indo-European national language. Root usually Romantic or Germanic origin. Semantics show significant Slavic influences.

It is often claimed that there are grammatical elements not found in this language family. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's agglutinative morphology based on the invariant morpheme, and the lack of ablaut (internal inflection from its roots), which Zamenhof himself considered to be foreign to non-Indo-European speaking speakers. Ablaut is an element of all source languages; the English example is the song sung sang. However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages ​​change without ablaut, such as cat, cat and walking, walking do in English. (This is what is called a weak dichotomy). Historically, many Indo-European languages ​​have expanded their 'weak' inflation range, and Esperanto has just taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut creature. frozen in some related semantic root sets like pli , plej , plu (more, at most, more), tre , tro (very, too much), and in the verbal morpheme -as , -anta , < i> -ata ; -is , -inta , -ita -os , -onta , -ota -us .

Other features that are often cited as non-standard for Indo-European languages, such as special suffixes for different parts of the speech, or the -o suffix for a single noun, actually occur in Indo-European languages ​​such as Russian people. More relevant is the plural accusative in -jn . Esperanto is superficially similar to the non-Indo-European languages ​​of Hungary and Turkey - which are similar in mechanism, but not used. None of the "non-European" proposals of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with the language were not deliberate.

East Asian languages ​​may have an influence on the development of Esperanto's grammar after its creation. The cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, like la? Ielo bluas (blue sky) for la? Ielo estas blua and mia filino belu! (hopefully my daughter is beautiful!) for mia filino estu bela !! mentioned above.

sample text

Pater noster, from the first Esperanto publication in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

Our dad, stylish,

purify your name.

Come Your Kingdom,

do your will,

like in the room too? on the ground.

Give us a little bread? "

And pardon us ?,

too? We forgive our debtors.

And do not bring us into temptation,

but release us from evil.

(? in Via is the kingdom and power

and glory forever.)

Amin.

Kata-kata morphologic complexes (lihat formasi kata Esperanto) adalah:

Reference

Tautan eksternal

• Esperanto Grammar (oleh Don Harlow)
• Esperanto Grammar (oleh Jirka Hana)
• Seorang Primer Esperanto Dasar (oleh Daniel M. Albro)
• Full Handbook of Esperanto Grammar ("Buku Pegangan Lengkap Esperanto Grammar", oleh Bertilo Wennergren)
• Detail Learn! Grammar of Esperanto (ditulis oleh Bertilo Wennergren)
• Esperanto Grammar with Exercises (oleh Lingolia)

Source of the article : Wikipedia