Embodied cognition

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Embodimentary cognition is the theory that many features of cognition, whether human or otherwise, are shaped by aspects of the whole body of the organism. Cognitive features include high-level mental constructions (such as concepts and categories) and performance on a variety of cognitive tasks (such as reasoning or judgment). Body aspects include the motor system, perceptual system, the interaction of the body with the environment (arahness) and assumptions about the world built into the structure of the organism.

The thought thesis embodied challenges other theories, such as cognitivism, computationalism, and Cartesian dualism. This is closely related to the extended mind thesis, located cognition and enactivism. The modern version depends on insights drawn from recent research in psychology, linguistics, cognitive science, dynamic systems, artificial intelligence, robotics, animal cognition, plant cognition and neurobiology.

Video Embodied cognition

Embodiment scenario

In philosophy, the embodied cognition states that agent cognition is strongly influenced by aspects of the agent body outside the brain itself. In their proposal for an enactive approach to cognition Varela et al. defined "manifested":

"By using the term realized we intend to highlight two points: first that cognition depends on the kind of experience that comes from having bodies with sensorimotor capacities, and secondly, the capacities of the individual sensorimotor itself embedded in a broader biological, psychological and cultural context. "

- Eleanor Rosch, Evan Thompson, Francisco J. Varela: Colored Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience pages 172-173

The Varela enactive definition is broad enough to overlap an expanded cognition view and located cognition, and indeed, these ideas are not always carefully separated. For example, according to Michael Dawson, the connection is entangled:

"In view of cognition as embedded or situated, embodied cognitive science emphasizes feedback between agents and the world.We have seen that this feedback is composed by the nature of the agent's body... This in turn suggests that agents with different the body type can be distinguished in terms of the degree of embodiment... The embodiment can be defined as the extent to which an agent can change its environment. "[Excerpt has been omitted]

- Michael Dawson: Degree of embodiment ; The Routledge Handbook of Embodied Cognition, page 62

Some authors explain the cognitive dependence on the body and its environmental interactions by saying cognition in a real biological system is not an end in itself but is limited by the purpose and capacity of the system. However, they argue, the constraint does not mean that cognition is governed by adaptive behavior (or autopoiesis) alone, but cognition requires " some type of information processing... transformation or communication of incoming information", acquisitions involving " exploration and environmental modification ".

"It would be a mistake, however, to assume that cognition consists only of constructing a maximally accurate input information representation... gaining knowledge is a stepping stone to achieving a faster goal of guiding behavior in response to changes in the system environment. "

- Marcin Mi? kowski: Explains the Computing Mind , p. 4

The separation of cognition embodied by expanded cognition and located cognition can be based on a thesis embodiment, a narrower view of the embodiment compared to Varela et al. or that Dawson:

Embodiment scenarios: Many cognitive features are manifested in the sense that they are heavily dependent on the physical characteristics of the agent's body, so the agents outside the brain-brain play a causal role significant, or constitutive physical role, in the agent's cognitive process.

- RA Wilson and L Foglia, Intangible Cognition at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

This thesis eliminates the direct mention of several aspects of the "more biological, psychological and cultural context" included by Varela et al. Thoughts Extended thesis, in contrast to the Embodiment thesis, limiting cognitive processes not to the brain or even to body, but extends out into the agent world. Located cognition emphasizes that this extension is not just a problem including off-head resources, but emphasizes the role of probing and modifies interaction with the agent world.

Maps Embodied cognition

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In his book Universal Natural History and the Theory of Heaven (1755). the philosopher Immanuel Kant advocated a view of the mind-body problem and the subject-object problem with parallels to the views contained. Some difficulties with Kant's interpretation include (i) the view that Kant holds empirically, and especially knowledge of the body, can not support transcendental claims a priori , and (ii) the view that Kant argues that Transcendental Philosophy, though are charged with the responsibility to explain how we can have empirical knowledge, not necessarily empirical.

Josà ©  © Ortega y Gasset, George Santayana, Miguel de Unamuno, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Martin Heidegger and others in broad existential traditions have proposed a philosophy of mind that influences the development of the modern 'embodiment' thesis.

The movement of embodiment in artificial intelligence has sparked the argument embodied in revised philosophy and a revised ethical view:

"The pattern of species-specific activity should be regarded as a phenomenon that arises in three different meanings of the word.They have emerged... through natural selection,.... by the process of maturation and/or learning,... and from the interaction between the creature's low-level activity and its species-specific environment. "

- Horst Hendriks-Jansen Capturing Yourself in the Law , p. 10

This development also gives the emotion of a new status in the philosophy of the mind as an irreplaceable constituency, rather than the non-essential addition to rational intellectual thought. In the philosophy of mind, the idea that cognition is manifested is sympathetic to other cognitive views such as cognition or externalism lies. This is a radical step toward the total re-localization of mental processes beyond the neural domain.

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Connection with science

The embodied cognition is a topic of research in social and cognitive psychology, covering issues such as social interaction and decision making. The embodied cognition reflects the argument that the motor system influences our cognition, just as the mind affects the actions of the body. For example, when participants hold a pencil in their teeth that pulls the muscles of a smile, they understand a pleasant sentence faster than an unpleasant one, while holding a pencil between the nose and upper lip to engage the wrinkle muscles has the opposite effect.

George Lakoff (a cognitive scientist and linguist) and his colleagues (including Mark Johnson, Mark Turner, and Rafael E. NÃÆ'ºÃÆ'  ± ez) have written a series of books that promote and extend the thesis based on discoveries in cognitive science, such as metaphors conceptual and image schemes.

Robotic researchers like Rodney Brooks, Hans Moravec and Rolf Pfeifer argue that real artificial intelligence can only be achieved by machines that have sensory and motor skills and connect to the world through the body. The insights of these robotics researchers in turn inspired philosophers like Andy Clark and Horst Hendriks-Jansen.

Neurologists Gerald Edelman, AntÃÆ'³nio DamÃÆ'¡sio and others have described the relationship between the body, the individual structure in the brain and aspects of mind such as consciousness, emotion, self-awareness and will. Biology also inspired Gregory Bateson, Humberto Maturana, Francisco Varela, Eleanor Rosch and Evan Thompson to develop a version of a closely related idea, which they called enactivism. The motor theory of speech perception put forward by Alvin Liberman and his colleagues at Haskins Laboratories argues that the identification of words is manifested in the perception of body movement through which oral words are made. In related work in Haskins, Paul Mermelstein, Philip Rubin, Louis Goldstein, and colleagues developed an articulation synthesis tool for computational physiological and aeroacoustic modeling of vocal channels, showing how speech cognition and perception can be shaped by biological constraints. It expanded into the audio-visual domain by the "head-talk" approach of Eric Vatikiotis-Bateson, Rubin, and other colleagues.

More details are provided in the next section.

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Psychology

Visual search

One embodied cognitive study shows that action intentions can affect processing in visual search, with more orientation errors to point than to grasping. Participants either point or grasp the target object of 2 colors and 2 orientations (45 Â ° and 135 Â °). There are random numbers from distractors as well (0, 3, 6, or 9), which are different from targets in color, orientation, or both. The tone is audible to inform the participants who are targeting the orientation to be found. The participants continued to notice the fixation point until it changed from red to the target color. The screen then lights up and the participants look for a target, either pointing to it or holding it (depending on the block). There are 2 blocks to point and 2 for grasping, in order of offset. Each block has 64 experiments.

The results of the experiments show that the accuracy decreases with increasing number of distractors. Overall, participants make more orientation errors than color errors. There was no major effect of accuracy between the pointing and grasping conditions, but participants significantly made fewer orientation errors in grasping conditions than in the condition of the pointer. The color errors are the same in both conditions. Because orientation is important in understanding an object, this result is in accordance with the researcher's hypothesis that the plan to capture the object will help in orientation accuracy. It supports the cognition embodied because the action intent (planning to understand the object) can affect the visual processing of the information relevant to the task (orientation).

Distance perception

Internal circumstances may affect the perception of distance, which is related to the cognition that manifests. Researchers randomly assign students to high-choice, low-choice, and control conditions. The high-choice conditions signed a "freedom of choice" agreement that showed their decision to wear Carmen Miranda costumes and walk across the busy campus area. Low-choice participants sign the "experiment selection" consent form, which indicates an experiment that assigns participants to wear costumes. The control group walked across the campus but did not wear the costume. At the end of the experiment, each participant completed a survey asking them to estimate their running distance.

The high-choice participants considered the walking distance to be significantly shorter than the participants in the low-choice group and the control group, even though they were walking the same distance. The manipulation caused the high-choice participants to feel responsible for the choice to walk in that embarrassing costume. This creates cognitive dissonance, which refers to the difference between attitude and behavior. High-end participants incorporate their thoughts and actions by seeing the distance as shorter. These results demonstrate the ability of internal states to influence perceptions of physically displaced distance, which illustrates the reciprocal relationship of the body and mind in which cognition manifests.

Perspective

Researchers have found that when making judgments about objects in photos, people will take a person's perspective in pictures, not their own photos. They showed participants in undergraduate 1 of 3 photos and asked where 1 object in the picture was compared to other objects. For example, if 2 objects are apples and bananas, participants should answer questions about the location of apples compared to bananas. The pictures do not have people, someone who sees them, in this case a banana, or someone who reaches for a banana. The photos and questions appear in a larger set of questionnaires unrelated to the research.

The results show that participants who viewed photos that included people were significantly more likely to respond from someone else's perspective than those who saw photos without people. There is no difference in the perspective of a response for people looking for a range opponent. Participants who see a scene without a person are significantly more likely to respond from their own perspective. This means that the presence of a person in the photo affects the perspectives used even though the question is focused on only two objects. The researchers stated that these results show no body cognition, in which the participants put themselves into the body of the person in the photo.

Understanding language

Some researchers expand the cognition embodied to include language. They describe language as a tool that helps broaden our sense of the body. For example, when asked to identify "this" object, participants most often choose objects close to them. Conversely, when asked to identify the "it" object, the participant selects objects further away from them. Language allows us to distinguish distances in ways that are more complicated than simple differences of perception between near and far objects.

The motor system is involved in language understanding, in this case when a sentence is performed by a human, there is a change in the overall movement of a pendulum. Researchers conducted experiments in which undergraduate scholars swung the pendulum while completing a "penalty assessment task." Participants will swing the pendulum with both hands for 10 seconds before the prompt and then the sentence will appear on the screen until the participant answers. Under control conditions, participants swing the pendulum without performing "punitive judgment tasks." Each trial has a half-sentence "makes sense" and half "does not make sense". The phrase "makes sense" makes sense semantically, while the "unreasonable" makes no sense. The phrase "can be done" can be done by humans, while the phrase "dead" can not. The participants responded by saying "yes" to the phrase "reasonable".

The results show a significant "relative phase shift", or overall change in the swinging pendulum motion, for a "doable" sentence. This change does not occur for a "dead" sentence or a control condition. Researchers do not expect a complete phase shift, but rather they expect changes in motion variability, or "standard deviation of relative phase shifts." Although not fully expected, these results support cognition materialized and show that motor systems are involved in language comprehension. The researchers suggest that the nature of this relationship needs to be further investigated to determine the exact correlation of this task to manual motor movements.

The effect of manifestation arises in the manner in which people of different sexes and temperaments perceive verbal material, such as common adjectives and abstract and neutral nouns. Trofimova, who first described this phenomenon in his experiment, called it "projection through capacity". This phenomenon arises when people's lexical perceptions depend on their capacity to handle events; when their information processing registers most of the objects or situations that they can respond appropriately and in accordance with their inherent capacities. For example, in this study men with stronger physical-physical endurance estimate abstractions depicting people-time, work/reality-and time-related concepts in more positive terms than men with weaker endurance. Women with stronger social or physical endurance predict social pullers in more positive terms than weaker women. Both male and female temperament groups with high social skills exhibit a universally positive bias in their estimate of neutral words, especially for social and work/reality-related concepts, as opposed to those with lower socialization. The capacity associated with the tempo of activity also seems to have an impact on the perception of lexical material: men with faster physical motor tempo estimated to be neutral, time-related abstract concepts significantly more positive than men with slower tempos.

Memory

A study that examines the embodied memory and cognition illustrates that people remember the essence of a story when they physically play it. Researchers divided female participants randomly into 5 groups, "Read Only," "Writing," "Collaborative Discussion," "Independent Discussion," and "Improvisation." All participants received a monologue on teen addiction and were told to pay attention to details about the characters and actions in the monologue. Participants were given 5 minutes to read the monologue twice, not knowing future withdrawal tests. Under "Read Only" conditions, participants fill in unrelated questionnaires after reading the monologue. Under "Writing" conditions, participants respond to 5 questions about the story from a character's perspective in a monologue. They have 6 minutes to answer each question. Under conditions of "Collaborative Discussion", participants respond from the character's perspective to the same question as the "Writing" group, but in groups of 4 or 5 women. They were also given 6 minutes per question and everyone participated in answering every question. The condition of "Independent Discussion" is the same as "Collaborative Discussion," unless 1 person answers each question. Under conditions of "Improvement" the participants performed 5 scenes from monologues in groups of 5 women. The researchers suggest that this condition involves cognition manifested and will result in better memory for monologues. Each participant plays the main character and one-time support character. Participants were briefed by the line in the monologue, which was excluded from the memory test. Participants have 2 minutes to choose characters and 4 minutes for improvisation. The recall test is a monologue with 96 missing words or phrases. Participants must fill in the void as accurately as possible.

The researchers gave a recall test to a group that did not read a monologue. They score lower than other groups, which suggests that guessing is not easy. In encoding the answer to the recall test, the exact words are labeled "Verbatim", and the content is correct but the varied words are labeled "Gist". The combination of "Verbatim" and "Gist" is called "Total Memory." The "Improvisational" group has more "core" memory than any other group and has more "Total Memory" than the two discussion groups. The results fit the researcher's hypothesis that the "Improvisation" group will remember more because they actively train information from monologues. Although other groups also complicated encoding information, the "Improvisation" group recalled significantly more than the discussion group and little more than the "Just Read" and "Writing" groups. Simply experience a monologue by actively helping remember "Gist." There is no intergroup difference for the "Verbatim" memory, which they suggest may be longer than the limited time during the experiment to develop.

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Reasoning

A series of experiments show an interrelation between motor experience and high-level reasoning. For example, although most individuals recruit visual processes when presented with spatial problems such as mental rotation tasks, motor experts like the motor process to perform the same task, with higher overall performance. A related study shows that motorists use a similar process for mental rotation of body parts and polygons, while non-experts treat these stimuli differently. This result is not due to the underlying confusion, as demonstrated by training studies that show improvement in mental rotation after one year motor training, compared with controls. A similar pattern is also found in working memory tasks, with the ability to recall movements that are severely disrupted by secondary verbal tasks in control and by motor tasks in motor experts, suggesting the involvement of different processes for storing motion depending on the motor experience, ie verbal to control and motor for experts.

Approach and avoidance

In studies that focus on approach and avoidance effects, people show the effect of approach to positive words. In "positive conditions in the direction," participants move positive words to the center of the screen and negative words. In "negative conditions," participants move negative words to the center and positive words. The participants were given feedback about their accuracy at the end of each of the 4 experimental blocks. In the first experiment the word in the center of the screen had a positive valence, whereas in the second experiment the word center had a negative valence. In the third experiment, the center of the screen has an empty box.

As predicted, in the first experiment, participants in "positive conditions in the direction" responded significantly faster than those in "negative conditions in the direction". This fits in with the avoidable approach/effect in embodied cognition, which states that people are quicker to approach positive things and avoid negative ones. In the second experiment, researchers expect participants in "negative conditions to" to be faster, but those in "positive conditions toward" respond significantly faster. Although the effect was smaller in the third experiment, participants in "positive conditions in the direction" were still faster. Overall, people are faster in "positive conditions," regardless of the valence of the word center. Despite diverse results regarding the expectations of the researchers, they maintain that the motor system is essential in processing higher level representations such as action objectives. In this study, participants demonstrated the effect of a strong approach in "positive conditions in the direction," which supported the cognition manifested.

As part of a larger study, researchers separated participants into 5 groups with different instructions. Under "approach" conditions, participants are asked to physically move the product towards them, but in a "avoid" condition, participants must imagine moving the product away from them. Under "control" conditions, participants are instructed to observe only the product. The condition of "correction" involves the same instruction with the condition of the approach, unless the participant is told that the body can influence the judgment. Under conditions of "information approach", participants should list 5 reasons why they will obtain the product. After viewing an unflattering product image, participants rated on a scale of 1 to 7, how desired the product was and how much they approached or avoided the product. They also provide how much they will pay for the product.

The approach/avoidance effect is found in relation to product evaluation. Participants in the "approach" condition liked significantly more hostile products and would pay more for it. There is no difference between "avoidance," "control," "correction," and "information approach" conditions. Simulation approaches can affect the desire and willingness to pay for a product, but the effect can be reversed if the person knows about this influence. It supports the cognition that manifests.

Self-contained

As part of a larger study, one experiment randomly assigned a second group of undergraduate students. Under conditions of "muscle tone", participants hold pens in their hands, while under "control" conditions, participants hold pens in their fingers. Participants were then asked to fill a donation to Haiti for the Red Cross in a sealed envelope. They are told to return the envelope regardless of whether they donate. They also filled out questionnaires about their feelings about the Red Cross, their inclination to donate, their feelings about Haiti, what they thought was the purpose of the research, etc.

Significantly more participants were in "muscle tone" conditions than in "control" conditions contributing money. The condition does not affect the amount actually contributed when the participant chooses to donate. When the researchers predicted, the condition of "muscle tone" helped the participants overcome their physical reluctance to see the devastation in Haiti and spend money. Muscle-firming in these experiments may also be associated with increased self-control, suggesting that embodied cognition can play a role in self-regulation.

A number of other studies were conducted by Shalev (2014), suggesting that physical or conceptual exposure or drought-related cues affect the perceived energy and reduce self-regulation. In Study 1, participants using drought-related concepts reported greater physical thirst and fatigue and lower subjective vitality. In Study 2, participants who were physically hungry were less persistent in their investment efforts in an unsolved anagram task. In Study 3, dry land images are affected by time preferences as to when to begin preparations to make monetary investments. Finally, in Studies 4a and 4b, the exposure to product names associated with drought affects the impression of the vitality of the target person.

Some suggest that the embodied mind serves the process of self-regulation by combining movement and cognition to achieve goals. Thus, the embodied mind has a facilitative effect. Some judgments, such as facial emotion, are detected more quickly when a participant mimics a facial expression that is being evaluated. Individuals hold pens in their mouths to freeze the muscles of their faces and make them unable to mimic an expression that is less able to assess emotions. Measures related to goals can be driven by the embodied cognition, as evidenced by automated approaches and avoidance of certain environmental cues. The cognition embodied is also influenced by the situation. If a person moves in a way previously linked to hazards, the body may require greater level of information processing than if the body is moving in a way that is tied to a benign situation.

Social psychology

Some social psychologists examine the embodied cognition and hypothesize that the embodied cognition will be supported by the embodied relationship. The embodied relationship will be shown by the same stranger couple using the Aron paradigm, instructing the participants to alternately ask certain questions and to open themselves progressively. The researchers predicted that the participants would emulate each other's movements, reflecting the cognition embodied. Half the participants completed the task of control reading and editing scientific articles, while half of the participants completed a shortened version of Aron's self-disclosure paradigm.

There is a significant correlation between self-disclosure and positive emotions towards other participants. Participants were randomly assigned to the task of self-disclosure displayed more synchronous behavior (judged by independent judges watching cassettes of any condition on mute) and reporting more positive emotions than the control group. Because body movement affects the psychological experience of the task, the relationship between self-disclosure and positive feelings toward one's partner can be an example of a materialized cognition.

Evolutionary view

The embodied cognition can also be defined from the perspective of evolutionary psychologists. Evolutionary psychologists view emotion as an important self-regulatory aspect of embodied cognition, and emotions as motivators toward actions that are relevant to the goal. Emotions help encourage adaptive behavior. The evolutionary perspective cites language, both spoken and written, as the type of cognition embodied. Pacing and non-verbal communication reflect the cognition embodied in spoken language. Technical aspects of written language, such as italics, all capital letters, and emoticons promote inner voice and thus feelings rather than thinking of written messages.

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Cognitive science and linguistics

George Lakoff and his colleagues have developed several lines of evidence showing that people use their understanding of known physical objects, actions and situations (such as containers, spaces, trajectories) to understand more complex domains (such as mathematics, relationships or death ). Lakoff argues that all cognitions are based on knowledge derived from the body and that other domains are mapped to our contained knowledge using a combination of conceptual metaphors, image schemes and prototypes.

Conceptual metaphor

Lakoff and Mark Johnson point out that humans use metaphors everywhere and that metaphors operate at a conceptual level (ie, they map one conceptual domain to another), they involve an infinite number of individual expressions and that the same metaphor is used conventionally in entire culture. Lakoff and his colleagues have collected thousands of examples of conceptual metaphors in many domains.

For example, people will usually use language about travel to discuss the history and status of love affairs, Lakoff and Johnson metaphors call "LOVE IS A JOURNEY". This is used in expressions such as: "we arrive at the crossroads," "we split up", "we hit the rock" (as in the sea journey), "he is in the driver's seat", or, simply, "we 're back together. cases like this, something complicated (love affair) is described in the form of something that can be done with the body (travel through space).

Image schema

Prototype

Prototypes are members of the "ordinary" category, e.g. robin is a prototypical bird, but penguins are not. The role of prototypes in human cognition was first identified and studied by Eleanor Rosch in the 1970s. He was able to demonstrate that prototypical objects are more easily categorized than non-prototypical objects, and that people answer questions about the category as a whole with the reasons for the prototype. He also identifies basic level categories: categories that have prototypes that are easily visualized (like seats) and are associated with basic physical movements (such as "sitting"). Basic level category prototypes are used for reasons of a more general category.

The prototype theory has been used to describe human performance on many different cognitive tasks and in different domains. George Lakoff argues that the prototype theory shows that the category people use is based on our experience of having bodies and having no resemblance to a class or logical type. For Lakoff, this shows that the traditional objective record of truth can not be true.

The classical argument against manifestation in a strict form is based on abstract meaning. While the meaning of the words 'eye' and 'grasp' can be explained, to some extent, by referring to objects and actions, the 'beauty' and 'freedom' can not. It may be that some general sensorimotor knowledge is immanent in the liberating action or instantiations of beauty , but it seems likely that the additional semantic binding principles lie behind those concepts. So it may be necessary, however, to place abstract semantics in the system of amodal meaning? Tremendous observations have recently been offered that may be of the essence in this context: the abstract term indicates a tendency that is too proportionate to be semantically linked with knowledge of emotions. This embodied additional link account for profit in processing speed for abstract emotional terms above matching control words. In addition, abstract words greatly activate the anterior cingulate cortex, a site known to be relevant for emotional processing. Thus, it appears that at least some abstract words are semantically based on emotional knowledge.

If the words of the abstract emotion does receive its meaning through grounding in the emotion it is of crucial relevance. Therefore, the relationship between the abstract emotional word and its abstract concept is through the manifestation of the latter in prototypical action. Children learn abstract emotional words such as 'excitement' because it shows a JOY-expressing action scheme, used by adults who teach the language as a criterion for the correct application of abstract emotional words. Thus, the manifestation of emotion in action becomes an important link between the use of words and internal states, and hence between sign and meaning. Only after a stock of abstract emotional words has been grounded by the act of expressing emotion, then the term emotion can be learned from context.

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Artificial intelligence and robotics

History of Artificial Intelligence

The AI ​​research experience provides other evidence that supports the thought thesis it contains. In the early history of AI's success in programming high-level reasoning tasks such as chess games led to unfounded optimism that all AI problems would be relatively quickly resolved. These programs simulate intelligence using logic and high-level abstract symbols (an approach called Good-fashioned AI). This "bodyless" approach had serious difficulties in the 1970s and 80s, when researchers found that abstract, bodyless reasoning was so inefficient and unable to attain human competence in many simple tasks. Funding agencies (such as DARPA) withdraw funds because the AI ​​field has failed to achieve the stated objectives, leading to a difficult period now known as "winter AI". Many AI researchers have begun to doubt that high-level symbolic reasoning can perform well enough to solve simple problems.

Rodney Brooks argued in the mid-80s that this symbolic approach failed because researchers did not appreciate the importance of sensorimotor skills for intelligence in general, and applied these principles to robotics (the approach he called "Nouvelle AI"). Another successful new direction is the neural network - a program based on the actual structure in the human body that gives rise to intelligence and learning. In the 90s, AI statistics achieved a high degree of success in the industry without the use of symbolic reasoning, but using probabilistic techniques to make "guesses" and gradually increase them. This process is similar to the way humans are able to make quick and intuitive choices without ceasing to argue symbolically.

Moravec

Moravec Paradox

The Moravec paradox is a discovery by researchers of artificial intelligence and robotics that, contrary to traditional assumptions, high-level reasoning requires very little calculation, but low-level sensorimotor skills require enormous computational resources. The principle was articulated by Hans Moravec (from which his name) and the others in the 1980s.

As Moravec writes:

Encoded in large and very scented and motorized parts of the human brain is a billion years experience about the nature of the world and how to survive in it. The deliberate process we call reasoning is, I believe, the slimmest human veneer of thinking, effective only because it is supported by a much older and stronger sensorimotor knowledge, though it is usually unconscious. We are all incredible olympians in the field of perception and motor, so good that we make the difficult look easy. Abstract thinking, is a new trick, maybe less than 100 thousand years. We have not mastered it yet. It's not too intrinsically difficult; it seems so when we do it.

Approach to Artificial Intelligence

Resolving perceptual and driver issues directly

Many artificial intelligence researchers argue that machines may require a human-like body to think and speak as well as human beings. In early 1950, Alan Turing wrote:

It can also be maintained that it is best to provide the machine with the best sensory organs that money can make

buy, and then teach to understand and speak English. The process can follow normal teaching a child. Things will be shown and named, etc. (Turing, 1950).

Embodiment theory was brought to the most famous artificial intelligence by Rodney Brooks which showed in the 1980s that robots could be more effective if they were 'thought' (planned or processed) and felt as little as possible. The intelligence of the robot is directed only to handle the minimal amount of information needed to make its behavior appropriate and/or as desired by the creator.

Others argue that without taking into account both the architecture of the human brain, and the embodiment, it is unrealistic to accurately imitate the processes that occur during language acquisition, understanding, production, or during non-linguistic actions. Therefore, it is argued that while robots are far from isomorphic to humans, they can benefit from strengthened association connections in the optimization of their processes and their reactivity and sensitivity to environmental stimuli, and in human-machine interactions, and that the concept of multisensory integration is expanded to include linguistic input and complementary information combined from simultaneous sensory displays simultaneously.

The approach embodied for AI has been given several names by various school researchers, including: Nouvelle AI (Brooks term), AI, AI Based Behavior, and cognitive science materialized.

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Neuroscience

One source of inspiration for the theory of embodiment has been research in cognitive neuroscience, such as Gerald Edelman's proposal on how mathematical and computational models such as neuronal group selection and neural degeneration result in categorization appear.

Rohrer (2005) discusses how both our neural and developmental embodiments form our mental and linguistic categorization. Levels of abstraction thought have been found to be related to physical distance which then affects risk-related ideas and perceptions.

This embodied mind thesis is compatible with several cognitive views promoted in neuropsychology, such as Vilayanur S. Ramachandran's conscious theory, Gerald Edelman, and Antonio Damasio.

The work of modeling cognitive neuroscientists such as Francisco Varela and Walter Freeman seeks to explain cognition manifested and lies in terms of the theory of dynamic systems and neurophenomenology, but rejects the idea that the brain uses representation to do so (position also supported by Gerhard Werner).

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Criticism

The research on cognition embodied is very broad, encompassing various concepts. The methods for studying the embodied cognition vary from experiment to experiment based on the operational definition used by the researcher. There is much evidence for cognition embodied, although the interpretation of the results and their significance can be debated. Researchers are constantly looking for the best way to learn and interpret the embodied cognition.

Baby as an example

Some criticize the idea that pre-verbal children provide an ideal channel for learning embodied cognition, especially the embodied social cognition. It may not be possible to know when a pre-verbal baby is a "pure model" of cognition embodied, as the baby undergoes dramatic changes in social behavior throughout development. A 9 month old has reached a different stage of development from the age of 2 months. The time to seek and attain the size of cognition embodied may not represent the cognition that has materialized since the baby develops a sustainability object object that they can see before they develop a permanent object with objects they can touch. Correct cognition implies that children must first be physically involved with the object to understand the permanent object.

The response to this criticism is that the infant is the "ideal model" of cognition embodied. Babies are the best model because they use fewer symbols than adults. Sighting time may be a better measure of cognition manifested than achieving because the baby has not yet developed certain fine motor skills. Babies can first develop a passive mode of cognition before they develop an active mode involving fine motor movement.

Overanpretation?

Some criticize the conclusions made by researchers about the cognition embodied. Tooth-pencil research is often cited as an example of this incorrectly drawn conclusion. The researchers believe that a faster response to positive sentences by participants involving their smiling muscles represents the realized consciousness. However, opponents argue that the effects of this exercise are primed or facilitated by the involvement of certain facial muscles. Many cases of body fascial movements may be incorrectly labeled as evidence of cognition materialized.

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Six cognition views embodied

The following "Six Views of Cognition Embodied" is taken from Margaret Wilson:

1. "Cognition lies. Cognitive activity occurs in the context of the real-world environment, and inherently involves perception and action." One example is moving around a temporary room, at the same time, trying to decide where the furniture should go.
2. "Cognition is depressed time.We 'object to fingernails' (Clark, 1997), and cognition must be understood in terms of how it functions under the pressure of real-time interaction with the environment." When you are under pressure to make decisions, the choices made come out of meeting the pressures you face. In the absence of pressure, decisions can be made differently.
3. "We remove the cognitive work into the environment because of the limitations of our information processing capabilities (eg, limits of attention and working memory), we exploit the environment to reduce cognitive workloads. We create environments withholding or even manipulating information for us, and we harvest the information only on the need to know. "This is seen when people have calendars, agendas, PDAs, or anything else to help them with day-to-day functions. We write everything down so we can use the information when we need it, rather than taking the time to memorize or encode it into our minds.
4. "The environment is part of the cognitive system The flow of information between the mind and the world is so dense and sustainable, for scientists who study the nature of cognitive activity, the mind alone is meaningless. This statement means that the production of cognitive activity does not come from the mind alone, but rather a mixture of the mind and the circumstances in which we live. This interaction becomes part of our cognitive system. Our thinking, decision making, and the future are all influenced by our environmental situation.
5. "Cognition is to act.The function of the mind is to guide actions and things like perception and memory should be understood in terms of their contribution to the appropriate behavior of the situation." This claim must be made with the purpose of perception and cognition. For example, visual information is processed to extract identity, location, and price (the way we might interact with objects). A prominent anatomical difference is illustrated between the "what" (ventral) and "where" (dorsal) pathways in visual processing. However, the usual "where" line labeled is also the "how" path, at least partially dedicated to action.
6. "off-line cognition is body-based.Even when separated from the environment, mind activity is based on evolving mechanisms for interaction with the environment - that is, the sensory mechanisms of motor processing and control." This is indicated by the best infants or toddlers. Children utilize the skills and abilities they possess, such as sucking, grasping, and listening, to learn more about the environment. Skills are broken down into five main categories that combine sensory with motor skills, sensorimotor functions. The five main skills are:
   1. Mental Imagery: Is visualizing something that is not currently in your environment. For example, imagine future activity, or remember how many windows are on the first floor of a house that you once lived in (although you did not count explicitly when staying there).
   2. Working Memory: Short-term memory
   3. Episodic memory: Long-term memory of a particular event.
   4. Implicit Memory: the means by which we learn certain skills until they become automatic for us. An example of this is an adult brushing his teeth, or a racecar driver who puts the car in the drive.
   5. Reasoning and Problem-Solving: Having a mental model of something will improve the problem-solving approach.

Criticism of all six claims

Source of the article : Wikipedia