political philosophy , or political theory , is the study of topics such as politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law and law enforcement by authority: what they are, why (or even if) they are needed, what, if any, makes the government legitimate, what rights and freedoms should be protected and why, what form to take and why, what is the law, and what obligations should be borne by citizens legitimate, if any, and when it can be legally deposed, if ever.
In the vernacular sense, the term "political philosophy" often refers to the general view, or special ethics, beliefs or political attitudes, about politics, which is identical to the term "political ideology".
Political philosophy is a branch of philosophy. Political philosophy is also regarded by some as a sub-discipline of political science; however, the name commonly associated with this form of political inquiry is political theory, a discipline that has a methodology that is closer to theoretical fields in social sciences (such as economic theory) than philosophical arguments (such as moral or aesthetic philosophy).
- Editor's note: Disambiguate a paradoxically similar combination of uses "Government"/"Law"/"Politics", and "Philosophy"/"Ideology"/"Theory." See talk.
Video Political philosophy
History
Ancient Traditions
Ancient India
Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated the clear distinction between (1) nation and state (2) religion and state. The constitution of Hindu countries evolves over time and is based on the usual political and legal treaties and social institutions. State institutions are widely divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the main governing body of these countries, consisting of the King, the Prime Minister, the Commander of the Armed Forces, the Chief King. The Prime Minister presides over the ministerial committee together with the chief executive (Maha Amatya).
Chanakya, the Indian political philosopher of the 4th century BC. Arthashastra provides an explanation of political science for wise rulers, foreign policy and wars, state spy systems and oversight and economic stability of the country. Chanakya cites several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and describes himself as a descendant of a line of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka as his predecessor. Another Indian issue still influential on political philosophy is Sukra Neeti. An example of legal code in ancient India is Manusm? Ti or Laws of Manu.
Ancient Chinese
The Chinese political philosophy begins in the Spring and Autumn period, especially with Confucius in the 6th century BC. The Chinese political philosophy was developed in response to the characteristic social and political details of the country from the Spring and Autumn periods and the Warring States period. The main philosophies during that period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical school. Philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focus on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophy. Confucianism advocates a hierarchical and meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism advocates a highly authoritarian government based on punishment and cruel law. Mohism advocates a decentralized communal government centered on frugality and asceticism. The Agrarians advocate utopian communalism and egalitarianism of peasants. Taoism advocates proto-anarchism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by Confucian State in the Han Dynasty. Prior to the adoption of communism in China, Confucianism of the State remained the dominant political philosophy in China until the twentieth century.
Ancient Greek
Western political philosophy comes from the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy had begun since at least Plato. Ancient Greece was dominated by the city-state, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories: timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the most important first political philosophy works is Plato's Republic , followed by Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics and Politics . Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics and Roman statesmen Cicero.
Medieval Christianity
Saint Augustine
The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was strongly influenced by Plato. The main changes brought about by Christian thought are the moderation of Stoicism and the theory of justice from the Roman world, and the emphasis on the role of the state in applying grace as a moral example. Augustine also preached that a person is not a member of his city, but either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas Terrena). Augustine's St. Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas carefully handles different types of law. According to Aquinas, there are four types of laws:
- The eternal law ("the divine government of all things")
- Divine positive law ("proffered" by God, external to human nature)
- Natural law (the true way of life that can be found by natural reason, what is unknowable, internal human nature)
- Human law (what we commonly call "law" - including customary law, the law of the
Perfecta
Aquinas never discussed the nature or categorization of canon law. There is a scientific debate surrounding the place of canon law in the Thomistic jurisprudential framework.
Aquinas is a very influential thinker in the tradition of Natural Law.
The Golden Age of Islam
Mutazilite vs. Asharite
The rise of Islam, based on the Qur'an and Muhammad greatly changed the balance of power and perception of the origins of power in the Mediterranean region. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized the inexorable relationship between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to discover the truth - philosophy is essentially "political" because it has real implications for government. This view was challenged by the "rationalist" philosophers of Mutazilite, who had a more Hellenistic view, reason above revelation, and thus known to modern scholars as the first speculative theologians of Islam; they are supported by a secular aristocrat who seeks freedom of action independent of the Khilafah. However, in the late antiquity period, the Asharist 'traditionalist' view of Islam generally prevailed. According to Asyari, reason must be subject to the Qur'an and Sunna.
Islamic political philosophy, indeed, is rooted in Islamic sources - that is, the Qur'an and Sunnah, the words and practices of Muhammad - thus making it a theocracy. However, in Western thought, it is generally considered that it is a peculiar special area for the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser) ,? Bn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Khaldun. The concept of Islamic politics such as kudrah (power), sultans, ummah, cemaa (obligations) -and even the term "core" of the Qur'an - ie, worship (worship), din (religion), rab (master) ) - taken as the basis of an analysis. Therefore, it is not only the ideas of Muslim political philosophers but also many other jurists and scholars who propose ideas and political theories. For example, Khawarij's ideas in the early years of Islamic history of the Khilafah and Ummah, or that Shiite Islam on the Imamah concept is considered as evidence of political thought. The clash between the Ehl-i Sunnah and the Shiites in the 7th and 8th centuries has its original political character. Political thinking is not entirely rooted in theism. Aristotelleanism developed as the Golden Age of Islam saw the rise of the continuation of the peripheral philosophers who applied Aristotle's ideas in the context of the Islamic world. Abunaser, Avicenna, Ibn Rushd and Ibn Khaldun where part of this philosophical school that claims that human reason is beyond coincidence and mere revelation. They believe, for example, that the natural phenomenon occurs because of certain rules (created by god), not because God is directly involved (unlike Al-Ghazali and his followers).
Other notable political philosophies at that time included Nizam al-Mulk, a Persian scholar and Vizier of the Seljuq Empire who composed the Siyasatnama , or "Book of Government" in English. In it, he specifies the role of the state in political matters (ie how to deal with political opponents without damaging the image of the government), as well as its obligations to protect the poor and reward the decent. In his other work, he explains how the state should deal with other issues such as providing jobs for immigrants like Turks who come from the north (now southern Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan).
Ibn Khaldun
The 14th century Arab scholar, Ibn Khaldun, is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The English anthropologist Ernest Gellner considers the definition of Ibn Khaldun's government, "... an institution that prevents injustice other than as it does itself," the best in the history of political theory. For Ibn Khaldun, the government should be limited to a minimum as necessary evil, it is a male constraint by other men.
Medieval Europe
Medieval political philosophy in Europe was strongly influenced by Christian thought. It has much in common with Islamic Mutazilite thought in which Roman Catholicism though the subordinate theology of theology is not subject to reason for revelation but in the case of contradiction, the subterranean sense for faith as the Asyariah of Islam. Scholasticism by combining Aristotle's philosophy with St. Christianity Augustine emphasized the potential harmony that exists in reason and revelation. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher in medieval Europe was Saint Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which were only sent to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with Averroes's comments. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda, for scholastic political philosophy to dominate European thought for centuries even to the Renaissance.
Medieval political philosophers, such as Aquinas at Summa Theologica , developed the idea that a tyrant king had no king at all and could be overthrown.
Magna Carta, seen by many as the cornerstone of Anglo-American political freedom, explicitly proposes the right to rebel against the ruler for justice. Other documents similar to Magna Carta are found in other European countries such as Spain and Hungary.
European Renaissance
During the political philosophy of secular Renaissance began to emerge after about a century of theological political thought in Europe. While the Middle Ages actually saw secular politics in practice under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, the academic field was wholly scholastic and therefore Christian.
NiccolÃÆ'² Machiavelli
One of the most influential works during this growing period is NiccolÃÆ'² Machiavelli's The Prince , written between 1511-12 and published in 1532, following Machiavelli's death. The work, as well as The Discourses, the rigorous analysis of the classical period, influenced much of modern political thought in the West. A minority (including Jean-Jacques Rousseau) interprets The Prince as an allusion intended to be given to the Medici after they recapture Florence and the expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence. Although the work was written for the family in Medici in order to possibly influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the family oligarchy at Medici. However, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist political view, where good and evil are just the means used to end - that is, a safe and strong state. Thomas Hobbes, famous for his theory of social contract, went on to broaden this view early in the seventeenth century during the English Renaissance. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the self-centered selfishness of the individual. It is this belief that drives them to adopt a powerful central force as the only way to prevent the disintegration of the social order.
European Enlightenment
During the Enlightenment period, new theories about what humans are and what and about the definition of reality and how it is perceived, along with the invention of other societies in America, and the changing needs of political society (especially in the wake of the British Civil War, American Revolution, France), and the Haitian Revolution raised new questions and insights by thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
These theorists are driven by two basic questions: one, with what rights or needs do people make; and two, what is the best form for a country. This fundamental question involves the conceptual distinction between the concept of "state" and "government." It was decided that the "state" would refer to a lasting set of institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" will refer to a particular group of people who occupy state institutions, and create laws and ordinances by which people, including themselves, will be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that much of the political action in certain societies takes place outside of the country, and that there are unorganized societies into countries that must still be considered in terms political. As long as the concept of the natural order is not introduced, the social sciences can not develop independently of theistic thought. Since the 17th century cultural revolution in England, which spread to France and all of Europe, society has been deemed to be subject to natural laws similar to the physical world.
Political and economic ties have been drastically influenced by these theories because the guild concept is subject to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic theology's dominance is increasingly challenged by Protestant churches which are subject to individual nation-states, which also (in Church mode Roman Catholics often condemn angrily) preach in vulgar or native languages ​​of each region. However, enlightenment is a direct attack on religion, especially Christianity. The most vocal critic of the church in France is FranÃÆ'§ois Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a prominent enlightenment figure. After Voltaire, religion will never be the same in France.
In the Ottoman Empire, these ideological reforms did not take place and these views did not integrate into general thinking until much later. Also, there is no spread of this doctrine in the New World and advanced civilizations of the Aztecs, Maya, Inca, Mohican, Delaware, Huron and especially Iroquois. The Iroquois philosophy in particular provides many Christian thoughts about time and in many cases actually inspires several institutions adopted in the United States: for example, Benjamin Franklin is a great admirer of several methods of the Iroquois Confederation, and many early American literature emphasizes the political philosophy of indigenous peoples.
John Locke
John Locke specifically exemplifies this new era of political theory with his Two Treatises of Government . In it Locke proposes a theory of natural state that immediately complements the conception of how political developments take place and how they can be established through contractual obligations. Locke stands to disprove the political theory founded by Sir Robert Filmer and supports a natural system based on nature within a given system. The theory of the divine right of kings becomes a passing pleasure, exposed to the kind of ridicule with which John Locke treats him. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept the Aristotle dictum that humans seek to be happy in a state of social harmony as social animals. Unlike Aquinas's dominant view of the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believed that the human mind came to this world as a tabula rasa. For Locke, knowledge is not innate, revealed or based on authority but subject to the uncertainties generated by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is not necessary, because the laws of nature are based on reason and seek peace and survival for humanity.
Industrialization and Modern Era
Marxist criticism of capitalism - developed with Friedrich Engels - is, along with liberalism and fascism, one of the decisive ideological movements of the 20th Century. The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism greatly reshape society. During the same period, the socialist movement began to take shape. By the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism generally gained increased popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking completely from the past, Marx founded the principles to be used by 20th century revolutionaries of the future namely Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, and Fidel Castro. Although Hegel's historical philosophy resembles the theory of Immanuel Kant, and Karl Marx's theory of revolution toward common good is based partly on Kant's view of history - Marx states that he changed Hegel's dialectics, "standing on his head," "right side again." Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of the Spirit . In the late nineteenth century, socialism and trade unions were formed as members of the political landscape. In addition, various branches of anarchism, with thinkers such as Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon or Peter Kropotkin, and syndicalism also became famous. In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began to get the currency at the turn of the 20th century.
World War I was an important event in human history, changing the views of government and politics. The Russian Revolution of 1917 (and similar, though less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought communism - and in particular the political theory of Leninism, but also to a smaller extent Luxemburgisme - gradually - on the world stage. At the same time, social democrat parties win elections and form governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage.
Maps Political philosophy
Contemporary
From the end of World War II to 1971, when John Rawls published the Theory of Justice, political philosophy declined in Anglo-American academic world, as an analytic philosopher expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments were cognitive. content, and political science transformed into statistical and behavioral methods. In continental Europe, on the other hand, the postwar decade sees a very blossoming political philosophy, with Marxism dominating this field. This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and Mao Zedong's victories in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, and the events of May 1968 led to an increasing interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left. A number of European continents to England and the United States - including Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, Eric Voegelin and Judith Shklar - encouraged further study in political philosophy in the Anglo-American world, but in 1950 and their 1960s and their disciples remained at odds with analytic formation.
Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Colonialism and racism are important issues that arise. In general, there is a clear trend toward a pragmatic approach to political issues, and not a philosophical one. Many academic debates are considered one or two of two pragmatic topics: how (or does) apply utilitarianism to political policy issues, or how (or does) apply economic models (such as rational choice theory) to political issues. The emergence of feminism, the LGBT social movement and the end of colonial rule and the isolation of minority politics such as African Americans and sexual minorities in developed countries have led to significant feminist, postcolonial and multicultural thinking. This has led to a challenge to the social contract by philosopher Charles W. Mills in his book Racial Contract and Carole Pateman in his Sexual Contract that a social contract excludes persons of color and women respectively- respectively.
In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in 1971 was considered a milestone. The Rawls used mind experiments, the initial position, in which the representative parties chose the principle of justice for the basic structure of society from behind the veil of ignorance. Rawls also offers criticism of the utilitarian approach to the problem of political justice. Robert Nozick's 1974 Anarchy, State, and Utopia , won the National Book Award, responded to Rawls from a libertarian point of view and earned academic honor for a libertarian point of view.
Simultaneously with the advent of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at existing community criticism emerged between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of them take elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combine it with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers such as Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and JÃÆ'¼rgen Habermas combine Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along a slightly different line, a number of other continental thinkers - still deeply influenced by Marxism - put a new emphasis on structuralism and on the "return to Hegel". In the structural lines (post-) (although most do not pick up the label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard. Situationists are more influenced by Hegel; Guy Debord, in particular, moves the Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism into the realm of consumption, and sees the relationship between consumerism and the formation of the dominant ideology.
Another debate has developed around the (different) critique of liberal political theory created by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor. Liberal-communitarian debates are often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and inspiring perspective dispute. These followers and other communitarians (such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Daniel A. Bell) argue that, counter-liberalism, society before the individual and therefore must be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies that promote the growth of social capital.
A pair of overlapping political perspectives that emerged towards the end of the 20th century was republicanism (or neo- or communist republicism) and a capability approach. The revivalist republican movement aims to provide an alternative definition of freedom from the positive and negative forms of freedom of Isaiah Berlin, namely "freedom as non-domination." In contrast to the American liberal movement that understands freedom as "non-interference," "non-domination" requires that individuals are not subject to the arbitrary will of others. For a liberal, an uninterrupted slave may be free, but for a republic, mere status as a slave, regardless of how slaves are treated, is unacceptable. Leading Republicans include historian Quentin Skinner, lawyer Cass Sunstein, and political philosopher Philip Pettit. The ability approach, pioneered by economists Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen and further developed by law scholar Martha Nussbaum, understands freedom under the cognate line: the ability of the real world to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something that must be sourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally capable of doing something, but has a real choice to do it.
The current emphasis on "everyday commoditization" has been reproached by many contemporary theorists, some of whom argue that the burden will be felt within ten years. The "pricing" of ethical categories such as personal or sexual relations, albeit invariably, driven by the media agenda, is thus seen as crossing boundaries and having adverse social and philosophical consequences.
A prominent subject in recent political philosophy is the theory of deliberative democracy. Seminal work was undertaken by Jurgen Habermas in Germany, but the most extensive literature has been in English, led by theorists such as Jane Mansbridge, Joshua Cohen, Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson.
Influential political philosophy
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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