Truth

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Truth is most often used to mean according to fact or reality, or loyalty to an original or standard work. Truth may also often be used in the modern context to refer to the idea of ​​"truth to self," or authenticity.

Truth is usually thought to be contrary to falsehood, which, simultaneously, can also take on logical, factual, or ethical meaning. The concept of truth is discussed and debated in several contexts, including philosophy, art, and religion. Much human activity depends on concepts, where its nature as a concept is assumed rather than being the subject of discussion; this includes most of science, law, journalism, and everyday life. Some philosophers view the concept of truth as the basis, and can not be explained in terms of anything more easily understood than the concept of truth itself. Generally, truth is seen as language correspondence or thought to independent reality, in what is sometimes called the theory of truth correspondence.

Various theories and views of truth continue to be debated among scholars, philosophers, and theologians. Language and words are the means by which humans communicate information to one another and the methods used to determine what is meant by "truth" are called truth criteria. There are different claims about questions like what constitutes truth: what things can be right or wrong by the readers of the truth; how to define, identify, and distinguish truth; the role played by knowledge-based religion and empirically based; and whether the truth is subjective or objective, relative or absolute.

Video Truth

Definisi dan etimologi

The English word truth comes from Old English trÃÆ'ewÃÆ'¾, trÃÆ' Â © owÃÆ'¾, trÃÆ'½wÃÆ'¾ , Middle English trewÃÆ'¾e , cognate with Old High German > triuwida , Old Norse tryggÃÆ' Â ° . Like troth , it is -th the adjectives nominalization true (Old English trÃÆ' Â © owe ).

The English true is from Ancient English (Western Saxon) (ge) trÃÆ'Â © wewe, trÃÆ'Â © ows , a convergence with Old Saxon (gi) trÃÆ'Â » ui , Old High German (ga) triwu (Modern German treu "faithful"), Old Norse tryggr > triggws , all of Proto-Germanic * trewwj - "have a good faith", perhaps in the end of PIE * dru- "trees", in the idea of ​​"robust as oak" (for example, Sanskrit tree "taru"). Norse Old trÃÆ'º , "faith, honor, religion, belief" (ancient English "loyalty, honesty, good faith", compare ÃÆ' satrÃÆ'º ).

Thus, 'truth' involves both the qualities of "loyalty, loyalty, loyalty, sincerity, honesty," and that "deal with facts or facts", in Anglo-Saxon expressed by s? ÃÆ'¾ (Modern English seriousness ).

All German languages ​​other than English have introduced the terminological difference between the truth of "loyalty" and the truth of "factuality". To express "factuality", Northern Germany chose the noun from sanna to affirm, affirm ", while the Western Continental German (German and Dutch) chose to continue wÃÆ' Â ¢ ra "faith, trust, pact" (cognate with Slavic va ra "(religion) faith", but influenced by Latin verus ). The romance language uses the Latin-Latin term veritas , while the Greek aletheia , the Russian pravda and the South Slavic istina separate etymological origins.

Maps Truth

The main theory

The question of what constitutes the proper basis for deciding how words, symbols, ideas and beliefs can be considered true, whether by one person or the whole of society, is dealt with by the five most common substantive truth theories listed below. Each presents a perspective widely shared by published scholars.

Theories other than the most common substantive theories are also discussed. "Newly developed" or "minimalist" truth theories have emerged as possible alternatives to the most prevalent substantive theories. Minimalist thinking centers around the notion that applying a term like true to a statement does not affirm anything significant about it, for example, anything about its nature . Minimalist reasoning realizes truth as a label used in public discourse to express consent, to emphasize claims, or to form general assumptions.

Substantive Theory

Correspondence Theory

The correspondence theory emphasizes that the true beliefs and true statements fit the actual circumstances. This type of theory emphasizes the relationship between thought or statement in one hand, and objects or objects on the other. This is a traditional model that traces its origins to ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. This class of theories asserts that truth or falsehood of representation is determined in principle entirely by how it relates to "things", by whether it accurately describes those "things". An example of a correspondence theory is a statement by the 13th century philosopher/theologian Thomas Aquinas: Veritas est adaequatio rei et intellectus ("Truth is the equation [or the adequacy of things and intellect"], an associated statement Aquinas with the ninth-century Isaac Israeli neoplatonist. Aquinas also reiterated his theory as: "Judgment is said to be true when it corresponds to external reality".

The theory of correspondence centers much on the assumption that truth is a matter of accurately copying what is known as "objective reality" and then representing it in thoughts, words, and other symbols. Many modern theorists have stated that these ideals can not be achieved without analyzing additional factors. For example, language plays a role in the sense that all languages ​​have words to represent almost undefined concepts in other languages. The German word Zeitgeist is one such example: a person speaking or understanding a language may "know" what it means, but any word translation seems to fail to capture its full meaning accurately (this is a problem with many abstract words, especially those derived in agglutinative language). Thus, some words add additional parameters for accurate truth predicate development. Among the philosophers who wrestle with this problem is Alfred Tarski, whose semantic theory is further summarized below in this article.

The proponents of several theories below have gone so far as to assert that there are other issues necessary for analysis, such as interpersonal power struggles, community interaction, personal bias, and other factors involved in deciding what is seen as the truth.

The coherence theory

For the theory of coherence in general, truth requires the fit of elements in the whole system. Very often, though, coherence is taken to imply something more than simple logical consistency; there is often a demand that propositions in coherent systems provide mutual support to one another. Thus, for example, the completeness and completeness of the underlying set of concepts is an important factor in assessing the validity and usefulness of coherent systems. A principle that surrounds coherence theories is the idea that truth is essentially the property of the whole propositional system, and can be assumed to derive from individual propositions only by their coherence to the whole. Among the various perspectives generally regarded as the theory of coherence, theorists differ on the question of whether coherence contains many possible systems of actual thought or only a single absolute system.

Some variants of coherence theory are claimed to describe the essential and intrinsic properties of formal systems in logic and mathematics. However, formal reasoners are content to contemplate systems that are mutually independent and sometimes conflicting side-by-side, for example, geometry alternatives. Overall, the theory of coherence has been rejected due to lack of justification in its application to other areas of truth, especially with regard to statements about the natural world, empirical data in general, statements about the practical matters of psychology and society, especially when used without support. from other major theories of truth.

Coherent theory distinguishes the thinking of rationalist philosophers, especially Spinoza, Leibniz, and G.W.F. Hegel, along with the English philosopher F.H. Bradley. They have found awakening also among some supporters of logical positivism, especially Otto Neurath and Carl Hempel.

Constructivist Theory

Social constructivism holds that truth is constructed by social processes, historically and culturally specific, and that it is partly formed through the struggle for power within a community. Constructivism views all of our knowledge as "constructed," because it does not reflect external "transcendent" realities (such as the theory of pure correspondence may apply). Conversely, truth perception is seen as dependent on conventions, human perceptions, and social experiences. It is believed by constructivists that representations of physical and biological reality, including race, sexuality, and gender, are socially constructed.

Giambattista Vico was among the first to claim that history and culture are man-made. Vico's epistemological orientation collects the most diverse rays and unfolds in an axiom - verum ipsum factum - "the truth itself is built". Hegel and Marx were among other early proponents of the premise that the truth was, or could be, socially constructed. Marx, like many of the critical theorists who follow him, does not deny the existence of objective truth but rather distinguishes between true knowledge and knowledge which has been distorted through power or ideology. For Marx, true and scientific knowledge is "in accord with the dialectical understanding of history" and ideological knowledge is "the epiphenomenal expression of the relationship of material forces in a particular economic setting".

Consensus theory

Consensus theory states that truth is whatever is agreed upon, or in some versions, may be agreed upon, by certain groups. Such a group may include all human beings, or parts thereof consisting of more than one person.

Among the proponents of current consensus theory as a useful account of the concept of "truth" is the philosopher JÃÆ'¼rgen Habermas. Habermas states that truth is what will be agreed upon in an ideal conversational setting. Among the critics of a strong consensus theory today is the philosopher Nicholas Rescher.

In the Islamic tradition, this principle is exemplified by a hadith in which Muhammad states, "My community will never approve of mistakes"

Pragmatic Theory

The three most influential forms of pragmatic truth theory were introduced around the turn of the 20th century by Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. Although there is a wide divergence between them and other proponents of pragmatic theory, they have in common that truth is verified and confirmed by the result of applying one's concepts into practice.

Peirce defines the truth as follows: "Truth is the concordance of an abstract statement with an ideal boundary to an endless investigation that will tend to bring scientific conviction, whose concordance of abstract statements may have based on the recognition of inaccuracies and one-sidedness, and this recognition is an essential element of truth. This statement emphasizes Peirce's view that the idea of ​​approach, incompleteness, and partisanship, what he describes elsewhere as fallibilism and "future reference" is essential to the concept of righteousness. Although Peirce uses words like concordance and correspondence to describe one aspect of the pragmatic alignment, he is also quite explicit in saying that the definition of truth based on mere correspondence is nothing more than the definition of < i> nominal , which he gives lower status than the real definition .

William James's pragmatic theory, albeit complex, is often summed up by his assertion that "the 'right' is only wise in our way of thinking, just as 'rights' is only the way we behave." By this, James means that truth is quality , a value confirmed by its effectiveness when applying the concept to practice (thus, "pragmatic").

John Dewey, less broad than James but wider than Peirce, argues that investigation, whether scientific, technical, sociological, philosophical or cultural, is self-correction from time to time if openly proposed for testing by the community questioner to clarify, justify, correct and/or refuse the truth proposed.

Although not widely known, new variations of pragmatic theory are defined and successfully used from the 20th century onwards. Defined and named by William Ernest Hocking, this variation is known as "negative pragmatism". Basically, what works may or may not be true, but what fails can not come true because the truth always works. Richard Feynman also thinks: "We are never right, we can only be sure we are wrong." This approach combines many ideas from Peirce, James, and Dewey. For Peirce, the idea of ​​"... an endless investigation will tend to bring scientific beliefs..." matching negative pragmatism in negative pragmatics will never stop testing. As Feynman notes, the idea or theory "... will never be proved true, because experiments tomorrow may succeed in proving wrong what you think is right." Likewise, James and Dewey's ideas also presuppose the truth for repetitive testing which is a "self-correction" from time to time.

Negative pragmatism and pragmatism are also in harmony with the theory of truth coherence in which each test should not be isolated but rather incorporate the knowledge of all human effort and experience. The universe is a complete and integrated system, and testing must recognize and explain its diversity. As Feynman said, "... if you do not agree with the experiment, it's wrong."

Minimalist Theory (deflation)

Modern developments in the field of philosophy, beginning with the relatively modern idea that the old theory does not necessarily mean that it is absolutely flawless, has resulted in the emergence of a new thesis: that the term truth does not show the real property of the sentence or proposition. This thesis is in part a response to the general use of predicate truth (eg, that certain things "... are true") are so prevalent in the philosophical discourse of truth in the first half of the twentieth century. From this point of view, to assert that "'2 2 = 4' is true" is logically equivalent to stating that "2 2 = 4", and the phrase "true" can really be discarded in this context and every other context. In common language, the predicate of truth is unusual to hear, and it will be interpreted as an unusual occurrence is one to utilize the predicate of truth in everyday conversation when declaring that something is true. A new perspective that takes into account these differences and works with sentence structures that are actually used in general discourse can be explained broadly:

• as the deflation theory of truth, as they seek to downplay the significance of the words "true" or truth ,
• as a disquotational theory, to draw attention to the loss of quotes in cases like the above example, or
• as a minimalist truth theory.

Regardless of the term used, deflationary theory can be said to have in common that "[t] he 'true' predicate is expressive convenience, not a property name requiring in-depth analysis." Once we have identified the formal features and utility of the truth of the predicate, deflationists argue, we have said all that has to be said about the truth. Among the theoretical concerns of this view is to explain the special cases where it does not appear that the concept of truth has a strange and interesting character. (See, for example, the Semantic paradox, and below.)

In addition to highlighting formal aspects such as "true" predicates, some deflationists point out that the concept allows us to express things that may require very long sentences. For example, one can not express a belief in Michael's accuracy by asserting an endless sentence:

Michael says, 'snow is white' and snow is white, or he says 'red roses' and red roses or he says... etc.

This statement can also be briefly expressed by saying: What Michael says is true .

Active truth theory

Associated with PF Strawson is a performative theory of truth that says "'Snow is white' is true" is to do a speech act from signifying someone's agreement with the claim that the snow is white (like nodding head in agreement). The idea that some statements are more acts than communicative statements is not as strange as it seems. Consider, for example, that when the bride says "I do" at the right moment in marriage, she takes the action of taking this man to become lawful husband by law. He did not explain himself as taking this man, but actually did (perhaps the most thorough analysis of such "acts of illocution" was J. L. Austin, "How to Do Something With Words").

Strawson argues that a similar analysis applies to all speech acts, not just the illocution: "To say the statement is true not to make statements about statements, but to act to approve, accept, or endorse a statement When someone says 'It is true that it is raining,' one insists no more from 'Rain.' The function of [statement] 'It is true that...' is to approve, accept, or support the statement that 'rain falls.' "

Redundancy and related theories

According to the theory of truth redundancy, declaring that the statement is true is entirely the same as affirming the statement itself. For example, make a statement that "Ã, 'Snow is white' is true" is equivalent to affirming "Snow is white". The redundancy of theorists concludes from the premise that truth is a redundant concept; That is, it is just a word traditionally used in conversation or writing, generally for emphasis, but not a word that is totally equivalent to anything in reality. This theory is commonly associated with Frank P. Ramsey, who argues that the use of words like fact and truth is just a roundabout way of affirming the proposition, and that treating these words as separate problems in isolation from judgment is simply "linguistic chaos".

A variant of the theory of redundancy is a disquotational theory that uses a modified form of the Tarski scheme: To say that "P" is true "is to say that P. A version of this theory is maintained by CJF Williams in his book What is Truth? The other version of deflation is the theory of truth, which was first developed by Dorothy Grover, Joseph Camp, and Nuel Belnap as an elaboration of Ramsey's claims.They argue that phrases like "That's true", when it says in response "Rain", is a statement, an expression that only repeats the contents of another expression.In the same way it is it means the same as my dog ​​ in the sentence My dog ​​is hungry, so i feed it , That's right it should mean the same as Rain - if you say the last one and i then say the first.this variation does not always follow R amsey in stating that the truth is not a property, but it is more understandable to say that, for example, the "P" statement may involve substantial truth, and theorists in this case minimize only the redundancy or percentage involved in a statement like "it's true."

The deflationary principles do not apply to representations that are inconsistent with the sentence, nor do they apply to many other things that are generally judged to be true or otherwise. Consider the analogy between the phrase "Snow is white" and a character named Snow White, both of which can be true in some sense. For a minimalist, saying "Snow is white is true" is the same as saying "Snow is white," but saying "Snow White is true" is not the same as saying "Snow White."

Skeptical Philosophy

Philosophical skepticism generally poses any questioning or doubt about one or more items of knowledge or belief that regard the truth for their statements and propositions. Often directed at domains, such as supernatural, morality (moral skepticism), religion (skepticism about the existence of God), or knowledge (skepticism about the possibility of knowledge, or certainty). Formally, skepticism as a topic occurs in the context of philosophy, especially epistemology, although it can be applied to any topic such as politics, religion, and pseudoscience.

Philosophical skepticism comes in many forms. This form of radical skepticism denies that rational knowledge or belief is possible and urges us to postpone judgments about the assumption of truth in many or all controversial matters. A more moderate form of skepticism claims that nothing can be known for certain, or that we can know little or nothing about the "big questions" in life, such as whether God exists or whether there is life after death. Religious skepticism is "a doubt about basic religious principles (such as immortality, preservation, and revelation)". Scientific doubt is concerned with testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systematic investigations using scientific methods, to finding empirical evidence for them.

Pluralist Theory

Some of the major theories about truth state that there are certain properties that have true beliefs or propositions. Pluralist truth theory suggests that there may be more than one property that makes the proposition true: an ethical proposition may be true based on coherence. Propositions about the physical world may be correct in accordance with their object and nature.

Some pragmatic theories, such as those by Charles Peirce and William James, include aspects of correspondence theory, coherence and constructivism. Crispin Wright argues in his 1992 book of Truth and Objectivity that any predicate that satisfies a particular dispute of truth that qualifies as a predicate of truth. In some discourses, Wright argues, the role of the predicate of truth may be played by the idea of ​​superassertibility. Michael Lynch, in the 2009 book of Truth as One and Many, argues that we must see truth as a functional property capable of manifesting much in different traits such as correspondence or coherence.

The most trusted theory

According to a survey of professional philosophers and others on their philosophical views conducted in November 2009 (taken by 3226 respondents, including 1803 faculty members of philosophy and/or PhD and 829 postgraduates of philosophy) 45% of respondents accept or relied on theoretical correspondence, 21 % received or leaned toward the theory of deflation and 14% epistemic theory.

src: heywise.com

Formal theory

Truth in logic

Logic deals with patterns in reasons that can help tell us whether the proposition is true or not. However, logic does not deal with truth in the absolute sense, such as a metaphysician. Logicians use formal language to express the truth to which they are concerned, and therefore there is only truth under some interpretation or truth in some logical system.

Logical truth (also called analytical truth or truth required) is a true statement in all possible worlds or under all possible interpretations, in contrast to the fact (also called synthetic claims > or contingencies ) that apply only in this world as has historically been disclosed. A proposition such as "If p and q, then p" is considered a logical truth because of the meaning of symbols and words in it and not because of certain facts of the world. They are such that they can not be wrong.

The degree of truth in logic can be represented using two or more discrete values, such as with bivalent logic (or binary logic), three-value logic, and other forms of limited-value logic. Truth in logic can be represented using numbers consisting of continuous ranges, usually between 0 and 1, such as fuzzy logic and other forms of unlimited value logic. In general, the concept of representing the truth using more than two values ​​is known as a logic of great value.

Truth in math

There are two main approaches to truth in mathematics. They are the model of the theory of truth and the proof of the theory of evidence .

Historically, with the development of the 19th century the mathematical model of Boolean algebra from logic began to treat "truth", also represented as "T" or "1", as arbitrary constants. "Falsity" is also a random constant, which can be represented as "F" or "0". In propositional logic, these symbols can be manipulated according to a set of axioms and rules of inference, often given in the form of truth tables.

Moreover, from at least the time of the Hilbert program at the turn of the twentieth century to the proof of GÃÆ'¶del's incompleteness theorem and the development of the Church-Turing thesis in the early part of the century, the correct statement in mathematics is generally assumed to be a provable statement in the formal axiomatic system.

The works of Kurt GÃÆ'¶del, Alan Turing, and others shake this assumption, with the development of true but unprovable statements in the system. The last two examples can be found in Hilbert's problem. Work on the Hilbert 10th issue led at the end of the 20th century for the construction of certain Diophantine equations that can not be decided whether they have a solution, or even if they do, whether they have a finite or unlimited solution. More fundamentally, Hilbert's first problem is on the continuum hypothesis. GÃÆ'¶del and Paul Cohen show that this hypothesis can not be proved or disproved by using standard axioms of set theory. Therefore, in the view of some people, it makes sense to take either the continuum hypothesis or its negation as a new axiom.

The reconsidered assumptions about the essence of truth appear behind the GÃÆ'¶del incompleteness theorem. Martin Heidegger points out that truth may be essentially a matter of letting beings (any kind of entity, which can include logical propositions) are free to express themselves as they are, and state:

"Righteousness" is not the true feature of the proposition affirmed by the "object" by the "subject" of man and then "legitimate" somewhere, in an unknown sphere. Instead, truth is the disclosure of beings in which openness is essentially revealed [ west ].

GÃÆ'¶del agrees that the ability to understand the truth of a mathematical or logical proposition is a matter of intuition, the ability which he acknowledges can ultimately be beyond the scope of a formal theory of logic or mathematics and perhaps best considered in the human realm. understanding and communication, but commented:

The more I think about the language, the more it amazes me that people once understand each other.

The semantic theory of truth

The semantic theory of truth has as a general case for a particular language:

'P' is correct if and only if P

where 'P' refers to a sentence (the name of the sentence), and P is just the sentence itself.

Logistician and philosopher Alfred Tarski developed theories for formal languages ​​(such as formal logic). Here it limits it in this way: no language can contain its own predicate of truth, that is, the expression true applies only to sentences in other languages. The latter he calls the object language , the language in question. (Perhaps, in turn, has a predicate of truth that can be applied to sentences in other languages.) The reason for its restriction is that a language containing the predicate of truth itself will contain paradoxical sentences such as, "This sentence is incorrect." Consequently, Tarski argues that semantic theory can not be applied to any natural language, such as English, because it contains the truth of its own. Donald Davidson uses it as the foundation of his truth semantics and relates it to radical interpretations in the form of coherenism.

Bertrand Russell is credited with considering the existence of such paradoxes even in the best mathematical formations of mathematics of his day, especially the paradox which he later named, the Russell paradox. Russell and Whitehead sought to solve this problem in Principia Mathematica by placing statements into a type hierarchy, where statements can not refer to themselves, but only to lower statements in the hierarchy. This in turn leads to new orders of difficulty regarding the precise nature of the type and structure of possible conceptual type systems that have not been resolved to this day.

Kripke's truth theory

Saul Kripke argues that natural language can actually contain its own predicate of truth without causing contradictions. He shows how to build it as follows:

• Start with a subset of natural language phrases that do not contain the "right" (or "wrong") equation. So The big warehouse belongs to the subset, but not " The big warehouse is true", or the problematic sentence like " This sentence is wrong".
• Define truth only for the sentence in that subset.
• Then extend the definition of truth to include a sentence that precedes the truth or error of one of the original parts of the sentence. So " The big warehouse is true" is now included, but neither " This sentence is incorrect" or " The large warehouse is true.
• Next, determine the truth for all sentences that prioritize the truth or false members of the second set. Imagine this process repeating itself indefinitely, so the truth is defined for the large warehouse ; then for " The warehouse is great is true"; then for "' The big warehouse is true' it's true ', and so on.

Notice that truth is never fixed for sentences like This sentence is false , because it is not in the original subset and does not precede the truth of any sentence in the original set or the next set. In Kripke terms, this is "ungrounded." Because these sentences are never given truth or lies even if the process is done indefinitely, Kripke's theory implies that some sentences are incorrect or false. This is contrary to the bivalent Principle: every sentence must be true or false. Since this principle is the key premise in reducing the Wild paradox, its paradox is dissolved.

However, it has been shown by GÃÆ'¶del that self-reference can not be avoided naively, since the proposition of seemingly unrelated objects can have an informal self-reference meaning; in Gödel's work, these objects are integers, and they have informal meanings about propositions. In fact, this idea - manifested by diagonal lemma - is the basis of Tarski's theorem that truth can not be defined consistently.

Thus it has been claimed that the Kripke system does lead to a contradiction: while the predicate of truth is partial, it gives truth value (wrong) to the proposition as constructed in Tarski's proof, and therefore inconsistent. While there is still debate as to whether Tarski's evidence can be implemented for any similar partial truth system, nothing has proven consistent with the acceptable methods used in mathematical logic.

Revision truth theory

The theory of truth revisions, as developed by Anil Gupta and Nuel Belnap, takes the truth into a circular concept whose definition is a biconditional set of forms

'A' is true if and only if A.

Unlike Kripke's theory of truth, revision theory can be used with classical logic and can maintain the principle of bivalence.

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People's beliefs about truth

Predicate truth " P is true" has great practical value in human language, enables us to efficiently support or indict claims made by others, to emphasize the truth or error of a statement, or to enable various implications of indirect conversation (Gricean). Individuals or communities will sometimes punish "wrong" statements to prevent lies; the oldest surviving legal text, your Ur-Nam Code, a list of penalties for false allegations of witchcraft or adultery, as well as to perform false oaths in court. Even four-year-olds can pass a simple "false belief" test and successfully judge that the beliefs of others are different from reality in some way; in adulthood we have a strong implicit intuition about the "truth" that forms the "people theory" of truth. This intuition includes:

• Capture ( T -in): If P , then P is correct
• Release ( T -out): If P is true, then P
• Non-contradiction: The statement can not be true and false
• Normative: It's usually good to believe what's right
• Incorrect belief: The idea that believing a statement does not always make it true

Like many folk theories, our people's theory of truth is useful in everyday life but, after deep analysis, it is technically contrary to itself; in particular, every formal system that fully adheres to the Capture and Release semantics of the truth (also known as the T-scheme), and who also respects classical logic, is consistently inconsistent and gives up on the paradox of a liar or a similar contradiction.

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Important views

Ancient history

The ancient Greek origins of the word "right" and "truth" have several consistent definitions throughout the entire history range that are often associated with topics of logic, geometry, mathematics, deduction, induction, and natural philosophy.

The ideas of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle about the truth seen by some people are consistent with the theory of correspondence. In his book Metaphysics Aristotle states: "Saying what it is not, or what it is not, is wrong, while saying what it is, and what is not is not true." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy continues by saying of Aristotle:

[...] Aristotle sounds more like the original correspondence theorist in Categories (12b11, 14b14), where he speaks of "basic things" that make statements true and imply that "things "This (pragmata) is a logically structured situation or fact (ie, sitting, not sitting). The most influential is his claim in De Interpretatione (16a3) that the mind is a "homoiosis" of things. Although he does not define the truth in terms of the similarity of mind to a thing or fact, it is clear that such a definition will fit into the whole philosophy of his mind. [...]

A very similar statement can also be found in Plato (Cratylus 385b2, Sophist 263b).

In Hinduism, Truth is defined as "unchangeable", "having no distortion," "something beyond time, space, and person", "which surrounds the universe in all its firmness." The human body, therefore, is not entirely true because it changes over time, for example. There are many references, traits and explanations of truth by Hindu sages that explain various aspects of truth, such as the Indian national motto: "Satyameva jayate" (Truth alone wins), and "Satyam muktaye" (Truth frees), "Satya 'is' Parahit' artham 'va'unmanaso yatha'rthatvam' satyam "(Satya is the use of good words and thoughts for the welfare of others or in other words responsibility is the truth too)," When a person is fully established in speaking the truth, the fruit of the act becomes subject to him (patanjali yogasutras, silk number 2.36), "The face of truth is covered by a bowl of gold. Uncover it, O Pusan ​​â € <(Sun), so that I who have the truth as my duty (satyadharma) can see it! "(Brhadaranyaka V 15 1-4 and Short Upanisads 15-18), Truth is superior to silence (Manusmriti), etc. Combined with other words, satya acts as a modifier, such as" ultra "or" supreme , "or more literally" really , "contains purity and excellence For example, satyaloka is" highest heaven " and Satya Yuga is the "golden age" or the best of the four cyclical cosmic times in Hinduism, and so on.

Medieval

Avicenna (980-1037)

In early Islamic philosophy, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) defines the truth in his work, the Book of Al-Shifa, the Healing Book, Book I, Chapter 8, as:

What fits in with what's out there.

Avicenna describes the definition of truth later in Book VIII, Chapter 6:

The truth of something is the property of the existence of every thing that has been set in it.

However, this definition is only a medieval Latin translation of a work by Simone van Riet. The modern translation of the original Arabic state states:

Truth is also said about the veridist belief in existence [something] .

Aquinas (1225-1274)

The Reevaluation of Avicenna, as well as Augustine and Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas states in his book Disputed Questions of Truth :

A natural thing, placed between two intellectuals, is called true as far as it corresponds to both. It is said to be true in relation to its conformity to the divine intelligence as far as it satisfies what is ordained by divine intelligence... With respect for its suitability with human intelligence, something is said to be true as far as it is to cause a true estimate of itself.

Thus, for Aquinas, the truth of the human intellect (logical truth) is based on truth in various things (ontological truth). After this, he wrote an elegant remark from Aristotle's view in his Summa I.16.1:

Veritas est adÃÆ'Â|quatio intellectus et rei.
(Truth is the appropriateness of the intellect and the thing.)

Aquinas also said that the real things participate in the act of being a Creator God who is a Submission, Intelligence, and Truth. Thus, these beings have a light of clarity and can be known. These things (creatures, realities) are the foundation of truth found in the human mind, when it acquires knowledge of things first through the senses, then through understanding and judgment made by reason. For Aquinas, human intelligence ("intus", in and "legere", to read) has the ability to reach the essence and existence of things because it has a non-material spiritual element, though some moral, educational, and other elements. may interfere with his ability.

Changed the concept of truth in the Middle Ages

Richard Firth Green examined the later concepts of truth in the later Middle Ages in his book A Crisis of Truth, and concluded that roughly during the reign of Richard II of England the meaning of conceptual change. The notion of an oath, which is so much a part and parcel of Roman literature for example, changes from a subjective concept into a more objective concept (in Derek Pearsall's summary). The truth ("trouthe" of Sir Gawain and Green Knight) is the first "ethical truth in which truth is understood to be in people", in the English Ricardian it "transforms... into a political truth in which the truth is understood to be in the document ".

modern age

Kant (1724-1804)

Immanuel Kant supports the definition of truth along the lines of the theory of truth correspondence. Kant writes in Critique of Pure Reason : "The nominal definition of truth, namely that it is a cognitive agreement with its object, is here given and presumed". However, Kant denies that the definition of the truth of this correspondence gives us a test or criterion for determining which judgments are true. Kant states in his lecture logic:

[...] Truth, it is said, is included in the cognition deal with its object. As a result of this nominal definition, my cognition, to be considered true, should be in accordance with its object. Now I can compare objects with my cognition, however, just by knowing . Therefore, my cognition should assert itself, which is far from sufficient for truth. Since it is beyond me, the cognition within me, what I can decide is whether my cognition of the object matches my awareness of the object. The ancients referred to such circles in the explanation of diallelon . And actually logicians are always reproached with this error by skeptics, who observe that by definition this truth is the same as when someone makes a statement in court and in doing so appeals to a witness with whom no one is acquainted, but who wants to build his credibility by maintaining that the person who calls him as a witness is an honest person. The accusation was groundless as well. Only the solution of the problem shown is not possible without qualification and for everyone. [...]

This section takes advantage of the difference between a nominal and a real definition. The nominal definition describes the meaning of linguistic expression. The actual definition describes the essence of a particular object and allows us to determine whether a particular item is in the definition. Kant argues that the definition of truth is only nominal and, therefore, we can not use it to determine which judgments are true. According to Kant, the early skeptics were critical of the logicians for assuming, by using a nominal definition of truth, they could determine which judgments were true. They try to do something "impossible without qualification and for everyone".

Hegel (1770-1831)

Georg Hegel distanced his philosophy from psychology by presenting truth as an external object that moved on its own rather than dealing with deep and subjective thoughts. The truth of Hegel is analogous to the mechanism of a material thing moving under the influence of its own inner power. "Truth is a self-movement within oneself." Teleological Truth moves itself in the form of three steps of dialectical divergence toward the ultimate goal of perfect, final, absolute truth. According to Hegel, the development of philosophical truth is the resolution of the past opposition into an increasingly more accurate estimate of absolute truth. ChalybÃÆ'¤us uses the terms "thesis", "antithesis", and "synthesis" to describe Hegel's dialectic deformity. The "thesis" consists of incomplete historical movements. To resolve incompleteness, "antithesis" occurs against the "thesis." In turn, "synthesis" arises when the "thesis" and "antithesis" become reconciled and a higher degree of truth is obtained. This "synthesis" thus becomes a "thesis", which again will require "antithesis," which requires a new "synthesis" until the final state is achieved as a result of the historical movement of reason. History is the Absolute Spirit that moves toward a goal. This historical development will eventually end by itself when the Absolute Spirit understands the infinite self at the end of history. The Absolute Spirit will then become a complete expression of the infinite God.

Schopenhauer (1788-1860)

For Arthur Schopenhauer, assessment is a combination or separation of two or more concepts. If an assessment is an expression of knowledge, it must have sufficient reason or ground upon which judgment can be called true. Truth is a reference to the judgment of something different from itself which is a sufficient reason (basic) . Judgment can have material, formal, transcendental, or metallological truth. Judgment has truth material if the concept is based on the intuitive perception resulting from the sensation. If the judgment has a reason (ground) in another judgment, the truth is called logical or formal . If the judgment, from, for example, pure mathematics or pure science, is based on the intuitive, empirical form (space, time, causality) of knowledge, then judgment has transcendental truth.

Kierkegaard (1813-1855)

When SÃÆ'¸ren Kierkegaard, as his character Johannes Climacus , ended his writing: My thesis is, subjectivity, sincere is the truth , he does not advocate subjectivism in the extremes. form (the theory that something is true only because believers are so), but an objective approach to the problems of personal truth can not explain anything that is most important to one's life. Objective truth relates to the facts of one's existence, while subjective truth relates to the way one becomes. Kierkegaard agrees that objective truths for studying subjects such as mathematics, science, and history are relevant and necessary, but argue that objective truth does not explain one's inner relationship with existence. At best, this truth can only provide a very narrow perspective that has nothing to do with one's actual life experience.

While objective truths are final and static, subjective truths continue and are dynamic. The truth of one's existence is the life, inner, and subjective experience that is always in the process of becoming. The values, morals, and spiritual approach that one adopts, while not denying the existence of the objective truths of that belief, can only become fully known when they have entered into the mind through subjective experience. Thus, Kierkegaard criticizes all the systematic philosophies that seek to know the life or truth of existence through the theory and objective knowledge of reality. As Kierkegaard claims, human righteousness is an ongoing thing, and man can not find the truth apart from the subjective experience of his own existence, determined by the fundamental values ​​and essence of one's way of life. Nietzsche (1844-1900)

Friedrich Nietzsche believed in the quest for truth, or 'will for truth', was a consequence of the philosophers' desire for power. He thinks that the truth should be used as long as it promotes life and the will to power, and he thinks unrighteousness is better than the truth if it has an increase in this life as a consequence. As he wrote in Beyond Good and Evil, "The falseness of a judgment is for us not to object to judgment... The question is the extent to which it is the progress of life, the preservation of the soul, the preservation of species, even possibly species breeding... "(aphorism 4). He proposes the will to power as truth simply because, in his opinion, it is the most life-affirming and sincere perspective that a person can have.

Robert Wicks discusses the basic view of Nietzsche's truth as follows:

[...] Some scholars regard the unpublished Nietzsche essay of 1873, "On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense" (as ÃÅ"ber Wahrheit und LÃÆ'¼ge im auÃÆ'Ÿermoralischen Sinn ") as the keystone in his mind. In this essay, Nietzsche rejects the idea of ​​universal constants, and claims that what we call "truth" is simply "the army moves from metaphor, metonym, and anthropomorphism." His current view is that arbitrariness is fully applicable in human experience: the concept derives through the highly artistic transfer of nerve stimulation into the image; "Truth" is nothing more than the invention of a fixed convention for purely practical purposes, especially rest, security and consistency. [...]

Separately Nietzche suggests that the ancient, metaphysical belief in the divinity of Truth lies at the heart and has become the foundation for the entire next Western intellectual tradition: "But you will gather what I mean, that is, still a metaphysical faith in which our faith in science leaning - which we even know today, our godless anti-metaphysics still also takes our fire, from the flames illuminated by a thousand-year-old faith, the Christian faith which is also Plato's faith, that God is the Truth, the Truth is' '... "

Heidegger

Other philosophers take this general meaning of being secondary and derivative. According to Martin Heidegger, the original meaning and essence of truth in Ancient Greece was a discrepancy, or revealing or carrying what was previously hidden in the open, as shown by the original Greek term for truth, aletheia . In this view, the conception of truth as the truth is the subsequent derivation of the original essence of the concept, a development that Heidegger traces down to the Latin term veritas . Whitehead (1861-1947) Whitehead (1861-1947)

Alfred North Whitehead, a British mathematician who became an American philosopher, said: "There is no whole truth, all truth is half truth, it tries to treat them as whole truths that play the devil".

The logical development or connection of this line of thought is to conclude that truth can lie, because half-truth is deceptive and can lead to false conclusions.

Peirce

Pragmatists like CS Peirce take the truth to have some essential connection with human practice to investigate and discover the truth, with Peirce alone who holds the truth that is what humans ask about a problem, if the practice of our inquiry taken so far could profitably go: destined to finally be approved by all who investigate, is what we mean by the truth... "

Nishida (1870-1945)

According to Kitaro Nishida, "knowledge of the things in the world begins with the differentiation of consciousness of unity becomes diligent and known and ends with self and things become one again." Such unification takes shape not only in knowing but in judging (truth) knowing, the desire that directs the action, and the emotive feeling or reach that directs the sensing. "

Fromm (1900-1980)

Erich Fromm found that trying to discuss truth as "absolute truth" is sterile and that emphasis should be placed on "optimal truth". He regards truth as deriving from the necessity of survival from grasping a person's physical and intellectual environment, in which young children instinctively seek the truth so as to orient themselves in a "strange and powerful world". The accuracy of the estimates they feel about the truth will have a direct consequence on their ability to handle their environment. Fromm can be understood to define truth as the functional approach of reality. His vision of the optimal truth is described in part in "Man from Hisself: An Inquiry into Psychology of Ethics" (1947), from which the quotation is included below.

the dichotomy between 'absolute = perfect' and 'relative = imperfect' has been replaced in all areas of scientific thought, where "it is generally recognized that there is no absolute truth but that there is an objectively valid law and principle ".

In this case, "a scientifically or rationally valid statement means that the power of reason is applied to all available observation data without being pressed or falsified in favor of the desired outcome." The history of science is "a history of inadequate and incomplete statements, and each new insight permits recognition of the deficiencies of previous propositions and offers a springboard to create more adequate formulations."

As a result "the history of thought is the history of an ever increasing approach to truth: Scientific knowledge is not absolute but optimal; it contains the optimal truth that can be achieved in a certain history period." Fromm further notes that "different cultures have emphasized various aspects of truth" and that increased intercultural interaction allows these aspects to reconcile and integrate, further enhancing the estimate of truth.

Foucault (1926-1984)

Truth, says Michel Foucault, is problematic when every effort is made to see the truth as an "objective" quality. He prefers not to use the term truth itself but the "Truth Regime". In his historical inquiry he finds truth as something that is part of, or embedded within, a particular power structure. So Foucault's views have much in common with the Nietzsche concept. The truth for Foucault is also something that shifts through various epistems throughout history.

Baudrillard (1929-2007)

Jean Baudrillard considers the truth largely to have been simulated, that of pretending to have something, not to deviate, to pretend to have nothing. He took a clue from iconoclast which he claims knows that the Lord's image shows that God does not exist. Baudrillard writes in "Precession of the Simulacra":

Simulacrum never hides the hidden truths that there is no truth. Simulacrum is true.

- Preacher

Some examples of the simulacra quoted by Baudrillard are: that prisons simulate "truth" that society is free; scandals (eg, Watergate) mimics that corruption is improved; Disney simulates that the US itself is an adult place. We must remember that although the examples seem extreme, such extremities are an important part of Baudrillard's theory. For a less extreme example, consider how the film usually ends with a bad punishment, humiliation, or failure, thus confirming to viewers the concept that kindness ends happily and badly unpleasant, a narrative that implies that the status quo and strength are well established. most structures are legitimate.

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In medicine and psychiatry

There is controversy about the true value of a proposition made with self-deception, as when a hypochondriac has a physical asymptomatic complaint.

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In religion: omniscience

In the context of religion, perfect knowledge of all truth about all things (omniscience) is seen by some religions, especially Buddhism and Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Islam, and Judaism), as attributes of divine beings. In Abraham's view, God can perform divine judgments, judging the dead on the basis of perfect knowledge of their lives.

src: deborahsdescendants.com

See also

Other theorists

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Note

src: www.forallworld.com

References

References work

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External links

• Introduction to Truth by Paul Newall, intended for beginners.
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
  • "Truth"
  • "Pluralist Theory of Truth"
  • "Truthmaker Theory"
  • "Prosentential Theory of Truth"
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
  • Truth
  • Coherent truth theory
  • Correspondence truth theory
  • Deflation theories of truth
  • The theory of identity truth
  • Revision truth theory
  • Definition of Tarski's truth
  • The theory of truth of actionxi
• Heidegger on Truth (Aletheia) as Unconcealment
• History of Truth: The Greek "Aletheia"
• History of Truth: Latin "Veritas"

Source of the article : Wikipedia