Religious studies

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Religious studies , alternately known as religious studies, is an academic field aimed at researching religious beliefs, behaviors, and institutions. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizes systematic, historical, and cross-cultural perspectives.

While theology tries to understand the nature of transcendent or supernatural forces (like gods), religious studies try to study religious behavior and beliefs from outside a particular religious standpoint. Religious studies refer to their various disciplines and methodologies including anthropology, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and the history of religion.

Religious studies originated in the 19th century, when scientific and historical analysis of the Bible had developed, and the Hindu and Buddhist texts were first translated into European languages. Early influential scholars include Friedrich Max MÃÆ'¼ller, in England, and Cornelius P. Tiele, in the Netherlands. Today religious lessons are practiced by scholars all over the world. In the early years, it was known as Comparative Religion or Religion and, in the United States, there are those who today also know the field as the History of religion (linked to the methodological tradition traced to the University of Chicago on generally, and especially Mircea Eliade, from the late 1950s to the late 1980s).

The term "religion" comes from the Latin word "religio", which is nominated from one of three verbs: "relegere" (for constant change/conscious observation); "religare" (to bind yourself [back]); and "reeligere" (to select again). Because of these three different potential meanings, etymological analysis alone does not solve the ambiguity of defining religion, because each verb signifies a different understanding of religion. During the Middle Ages, the term "religious" was used as a noun to describe a person who had joined the monastic order ("religious").

Religious scientist Walter Capps describes the purpose of the discipline to provide "training and training... in directing and conducting research on religious issues". At the same time, Capps states that the other purpose is to use the "mode and the techniques of the investigation to be determined to make the subject matter of religion understandable." Religious study student, Robert A. Segal, characterizes discipline as "lesson material" that is "open to many approaches", and hence "does not require special methods or special explanations to be eligible for disciplinary status."

Different scholars operating in the field have different interests and intentions; some for example trying to defend religion, while others try to explain it, and others want to use religion as an example to prove their own theory. Some scholars of religious studies are particularly interested in studying the religion in which they belong.

Religious scholars argue that the study of the subject is useful to individuals because it will provide them with relevant knowledge in interpersonal and professional contexts in an increasingly globalized world. It has also been argued that studying religion is useful in respecting and understanding sectarian tensions and religious violence.

Video Religious studies

The Basic Form of Religious Life .

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History

Interest in the general study of religion goes back to at least Hecataeus of Miletus (about 550 BC - ca. 476 BC) and Herodotus (c. 484 BC - 425 BC). Later, during the Middle Ages, Islamic scholars such as Ibn Hazm (d. 1064 AD) studied Persian, Jewish, Christian, and Indian religions, among others. The first religious history is the Treatise on Religious and Philosophical Sects (1127 AD), written by the Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Shahrastani. Peter the Venerable, also worked in the twelfth century, studied Islam and allowed Latin translation of the Qur'an.

Despite a long interest in religious studies, the academic discipline of Religion Studies is relatively new. Dr. Chris Partridge notes that "the first professorship was first established in the last quarter of the nineteenth century." [1] In the nineteenth century, the study of religion was done through the eyes of science. Max MÃÆ'¼ller was the first Professor of Comparative Philology at Oxford University, a chair created especially for him. In his book Introduction to Religion (1873) he writes that it is "the duty of those who have devoted their lives to the study of the world's major religions in their original documents, and who honor and respect it in any form which may appear, to dominate this new territory in the name of true science. "

Many of the key scholars who helped establish religious studies did not consider themselves to be scholars of religious studies but as theologians, philosophers, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, and historians.

Partridge writes that "in the second half of the twentieth century the study of religion has emerged as an important and important field of academic inquiry." He cites the growing mistrust of nineteenth-century empiricism and a growing interest in non-Christian religions and spirituality coupled with the convergence of the work of social scientists and religious scientists as a factor involved in the revival of the Study of Religion.

One of the earliest academic institutions in which Religious Studies presented as different subjects was the University College Ibadan, now the University of Ibadan, where Geoffrey Parrinder was appointed lecturer in Religious Studies in 1949.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the term "religious studies" became common and interest in the field increased. New departments are established and influential religious research journals have begun (eg, Religion and Religious Studies ). Ahead for the Approach for Religious Studies , Ninian Smart writes that "in the English-speaking world [religious studies] are essentially dating from the 1960s, although before that there were such areas as 'comparative studies of religion' , 'religious history', 'sociology of religion' and so on... "

In the 1980s, both in Britain and America, "the decline in student applications and resource depletion in the 1980s led to the cutting of religious studies departments." (Partridge) Later in this decade, religious studies began to increase as a result of integrating religious studies with other disciplines and forming courses that combined disciplines with more utilitarian studies.

Religious philosophy uses philosophical tools to evaluate religious claims and doctrines. Western philosophy has traditionally been used by English-speaking scholars. (Some other cultures have their own philosophical traditions including Indians, Muslims, and Jews.) The common problems considered by philosophy (Western) religions are the existence of God, the beliefs and rationality, cosmology, and logical conclusions of the logical consistency of the sacred texts.

Although philosophy has long been used in the evaluation of religious claims (eg the Augustine debate and Pelagius of original sin), the emergence of scholasticism in the 11th century, representing "the quest for order in intellectual life" (Russell 170) , more fully integrated Western philosophical traditions (with the introduction of Aristotle's translation) in religious studies.

There are several overlaps between the subcategory of the study of religion and the discipline itself. Religious studies seek to study religious phenomena as a whole, rather than limited to sub-category approaches.

Religious anthropology

The anthropology of religion is fundamentally related to the basic needs of ordinary humans who are full of religion.

Anthropology of religious religion

Anthropology of religious culture is principally related to religious aspects of religion. The primary concern for religious cultural anthropologists is ritual, conviction, religious art, and pious practice.

Religious economics

The Gallup survey has found that the world's poorest countries are probably the most religious. Of countries with average per capita incomes below $ 2000, 95% report that religion plays an important role in their daily lives. This contrasts with an average of 47% of the richest countries, with revenues in excess of $ 25,000 (with the United States breaking trend by reporting at 65%). Social scientists have suggested that religion plays a functional role (helping people cope) in poor countries. The New York Times offers graphs that illustrate the correlation (not necessarily the cause) between religion and poverty.

Religious geography

Religious geography is fundamentally related to the spatial elements of practice and the embodiment of religion. In the 1960s and 1970s, religious geographers such as Wilbur Zelinsky and David Sopher were largely associated with Berkeley's school of cultural geography and focused more on the traces of religious culture on the landscape. Since the turn of the new cultural geography of religion through the work of James Duncan in the City as Text, religious geographers have focused on what Lily Kong called "political and poetic" religions, especially in relation to the political geography of secular nation-state. The latest interest in religious geography has focused on how religious practitioners impose a sacred space through their sacred practices embodied as well as the relationship between religion and geopolitics.

Religious history

The history of religion is not related to theological claims regardless of its historical significance. Some of the topics of this discipline are the historicity of religious figures, events, and the evolution of things of doctrine.

Literary Approach

There are many approaches to studying the sacred texts. One of these approaches is to interpret text as a literary object. Metaphors, thematic elements, and the nature and motivation of the characters of interest in this approach. An example of this approach is God: A Biography , by Jack Miles.

Neurological Approach

The temporal lobe has attracted the so-called "center of God" from the brain. (Ramachandran, ch.9) Neurological findings in relation to religious experience are not widely accepted disciplines in religious studies. Scientific researchers have used SPECTscanner to analyze brain activity from both Christian contemplatives and Buddhist meditation, finding them very similar.

Origin of religion

"The origin of religion" refers to the emergence of religious behavior in prehistory, before written records.

Religious psychology

Religious psychology deals with the psychological principles prevailing in religious communities and practitioners. William Ruth The Varieties of Religious Experience analyzes personal experiences in contrast to the social phenomena of religion. Some of the issues that concern religious psychologists are the psychological nature of religious conversion, religious decision making, religion and happiness, and psychological factors in evaluating religious claims.

Sigmund Freud is another character in the field of psychology and religion. He uses his psychoanalytic theory to explain religious beliefs, practices, and rituals, to justify the role of religion in the development of human culture.

Religious sociology

The sociology of religion concerns the dialectical relationship between religion and society; practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and the role of religion in society. There is a particular emphasis on the repetitive role of religion in all societies and throughout recorded history. The sociology of religion is distinguished from religious philosophy because it does not establish to judge the validity of religious beliefs, although the process of comparing contradictory dogmas may require what Peter L. Berger has described as an inherent "methodological atheism". While the sociology of religion is widely different from theology in the assumption of supernatural invalidity, theorists tend to recognize the socio-cultural reification of religious practice.

It can be argued that the formal discipline of modern sociology began with the analysis of religion in Durkheim's 1897 study of suicide rates among Catholic and Protestant populations. Max Weber's works emphasize the relationship between religious beliefs and the economic foundations of society. Contemporary debates center on issues such as secularization, civil religion, and religious cohesion in the context of globalization and multiculturalism.

The sociology of religion is also related to how religion affects society about positive and negative things about what happens when religion mingles with society. Theorists such as Marx state that "religion is the opium of the people" - the idea that religion has become a way for people to solve their problems. At least one comprehensive study disputes this idea. Research has found that secular democracies like France or Scandinavia outperform more theistic democracies in various measures of public health. The authors explain, "Suppressing the question includes the reason, whether it is theistic or non-theistic, that a very rich US is so inefficient that it experiences a much higher level of social difficulty than a less religious, less prosperous and prosperous democracy. the latter achieving excellent public health while having little in the way of religious or institutional values? "

Law and religion

Vogel reports that in the 1970s a new "law and religion" approach has progressively built its own contribution to religious studies. More than a dozen scientific organizations and committees were formed in 1983, and scientifically quarterly, the Journal of Law and Religion was first published that year and the Journal of Ecclesiastical Law was opened in 1999. Many departments and centers have been created around the world over the last few decades. As of 2012, major US Law and Religion organizations include 500 law professors, 450 political scientists, and specialists in various other fields such as history and religious studies. Between 1985 and 2010, this field saw the publication of about 750 books and 5,000 scientific articles. Scholars not only focus on rigorous legal issues of religious freedom or non-establishment but also religious studies because they qualify through judicial discourse or legal understanding of religious phenomena. Exponents see canon law, natural law, and state law, often in a comparative perspective. Specialists have explored themes in western history about Christianity and justice and compassion, rules and justice, discipline and love. Exciting general topics include marriage and family, and human rights. Moving beyond Christianity, scholars have seen the relationship of law and religion in law and religion in Muslim Middle East, and Roman infidels.

Religion and movies

The earliest serious writings on the interface between religion and film appear in the work of film critics such as Jean Epstein in the 1920s. Subjects have grown in popularity among students and are cited as having particular relevance given the breadth of film in modern culture. Approaches for religious studies and films differ among scholars; Functionalist approaches for example see the film as a site where religion is manifested, while the theological approach examines the film as a reflection of God's presence in everything.

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Methodology

A number of methodologies are used in Religious Studies. The methodology is a hermeneutic, or interpretative model, which provides a structure for the analysis of religious phenomena.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is "the most influential approach to religious study in the 20th century." (Partridge) This term was first discovered in the title of the influential philosopher's work of German Idealism, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, entitled The Phenomenology of Spirit. Phenomenology has been practiced long before being made explicit as a philosophical method by Edmund Husserl, who is considered its founder. In the context of religious phenomenology, the term was first used by Pierre Daniel Chantepie de la Saussaye in his work "Lehrbuch der Religiongeschichte" (1887). Phenomenology Chantepie catalogs the observable characteristics of religion as a zoologist will categorize an animal or entomologist categorizing insects.

Partly because of Husserl's influence, "phenomenology" comes to "referring to more complex methods and claim more for itself than simply cataloging the facts of Chantepie." (Partridge) Husserl argues that the foundation of knowledge is consciousness. He acknowledges "how easy it is for previous beliefs and interpretations to unconsciously influence one's thinking, Husserl's phenomenological method seeks to override all these prejudices and interpretations." (Partridge) Husserl introduced the term "eidetic vision" to describe the ability to observe without "previous beliefs and interpretations" that affect understanding and perception.

Another major conceptual contribution is the epoche idea: setting aside the metaphysical questions and observing the phenomena in and of themselves, without any bias or commitment from the investigator. Epoche, also known as phenomenological reduction or grouping, involves approaching phenomena or phenomena from a neutral point of view, rather than with our own particular attitudes. In doing this reduction, any phenomenon or phenomenon that we approach is understood within themselves, not from our own perspective. In the field of religious studies, a proponent of contemporary phenomenological methods is Ninian Smart. He suggested that we should do epoche as a means to engage in cross-cultural studies. Thus, we can take beliefs, symbols, rituals, etc. From others from within their own perspective, rather than imposing us on them. Another previous scholar who used the phenomenological method to study religion was Gerard van der Leeuw. In his book Religion in Essence and Manifestation (1933), he describes what should look like religious phenomenology:

• First of all, the argument of van der Leeuw, religious students need to classify religious phenomena into different categories: eg. sacrifice, sacred, holy time, sacred word, festival, and myth.
• Secondly, experts then need to interpolate phenomena into their own lives. That is, they need to empathically (EinfÃÆ'¼hlung) try and understand religion from within.... Life studied by scholars of religious studies, insisting on van der Leeuw, needs to "get its place in the student's life itself." who must understand it from within himself. "
• Thirdly, van der Leeuw emphasizes perhaps the fundamental phenomenological principle, namely the age, the deferral of value-judgment and the adoption of a neutral attitude.
• Fourth, experts need to clarify the clear structural relationships and understand the information. Thus, they move towards a holistic understanding of how various aspects of religion relate and function together.
• Fifth, this leads naturally to the stage where "all these activities, done together and simultaneously, are true understandings [Verstehen]:" reality "is chaotic and stubborn thus becoming manifestation, revelation" ( eidetic vision).
• Sixth, after reaching this general understanding, there is an ongoing need to ensure that it fits with current research from other disciplines, such as archeology, history, philology, etc. For van der Leeuw, as for other phenomenologists, continuous checking of one's results is essential for the maintenance of scientific objectivity. To avoid degeneration into fantasy, phenomenology must always pay attention to facts.
Finally, after going through the above six phenomena, the phenomenologist should be as close as possible to anyone to understand the 'meaning' of the learned religious phenomenon and be in a position to relate his or her understanding to others. li>

The subjectivity inherent in religious phenomenological studies makes comprehensive and comprehensive comprehension extremely difficult. However, phenomenologists aim to separate their formal religious studies from their own theological worldview and to eliminate, as far as possible, personal biases (eg, a Christian phenomenologist will avoid studying Hinduism through the lens of Christianity).

There are a number of common theoretical and methodological attitudes among phenomenologists: the source

• Phenomenologists tend to resist the acceptance of the unobservable and large systems established in speculative thinking;
• Phenomenologists tend to oppose naturalism (also called objectivism and positivism), which is a growing world view of modern natural science and technology that has spread from Northern Europe since the Renaissance;
• Positively, phenomenologists tend to justify cognition (and some evaluations and actions) with reference to what Edmund Husserl Evidenz calls, which is an awareness of a matter itself as expressed in the clearest, distinct and adequate way to something of its kind;
• Phenomenologists tend to believe that not only things in nature and the world of culture, but also the ideal objects, such as numbers, and even conscious life itself can be made clear and known as such;
• Phenomenologists tend to argue that the inquiry should focus on the so-called "encounter" because it is directed at the object and, correlatively, to the "object they are encountered" (this terminology is not widely shared, but the emphasis on multiple problems and the reflective approach what is needed is);
• Phenomenologists tend to recognize the role of description in universal, a priori, or "eidetic" terms as before explanations by reason, purpose, or reason; and
• Phenomenologists tend to debate whether or not so-called Husserl epochen transcendental phenomenologies and reductions are useful or even possible.

Many scholars of religious studies argue that phenomenology is a "typical method of discipline". In 2006, the religious phenomenologist Thomas Ryba noted that this approach to religious studies "enters a period of dormancy". The phenomenological approach is largely taxonomic, with Robert A. Segal claiming that it is "no more than data collection" in addition to "classification of collected data".

Functionalism

Functionalism, in terms of religious studies, is the analysis of religion and its various adherent communities using the function of certain religious phenomena to interpret the structure of their religious communities and beliefs. This approach was introduced by the English anthropologist Alfred Radcliffe-Brown. The main criticism of functionalism is that it is suitable for teleological explanations. An example of a functionalist approach is to understand the dietary restrictions contained in the Pentateuch as a function of promoting health or providing a social identity ( ie sense of belonging despite common practice).

Live religion

The living religion is an ethnographic and holistic framework for understanding religious beliefs, practices, and daily religious and spiritual experiences in religious studies. The name of the living religion derives from the sociological tradition of the French religion "la religion vue la".

The concept of a living religion was popularized in the late 20th century by scholars of religious studies such as Robert A. Orsi and David Hall. The study of living religion has covered the various subject areas as a means to explore and emphasize what a religious person does and what they believe. Today, the living field of religion is evolving to include many topics and scholars.

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Religious studies and theology

The Western philosophy of religion, as the basic ancestor of modern religious studies, is distinguished from theology and many Eastern philosophical traditions generally written from a third-party perspective. The learner does not need to be a believer. Theology stands contrary to religious philosophy and religious studies in that, in general, scholars are first and foremost a believer who uses both the logic and scripture as proof. This theology according to this understanding conforms to the definition given by Anselm of Canterbury in the 11th century, the credo ut intelligam, or the faith of seeking understanding (literally, "I believe so that I can understand"). The theologian then has the task of making sense, or clarifying, the religious commitment in which he subscribes. Scholars of religious studies have no such loyalty.

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Criticism

A group of scholars have criticized the religious studies that began in the 1990s as a theological project that actually impose views onto people who aim to survey. These prominent voices in this critical outlook include Jonathan Z. Smith, Timothy Fitzgerald, Talal Asad, Tomoko Masuzawa, Geoffrey A. Oddie, Richard E. King, Russell T. McCutcheon, and Daniel Dubuisson. Their field of research overlaps with postcolonial studies.

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Academic journals

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