History

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History (from the Greek ??????? , historia , meaning "questions, knowledge gained by inquiry") is a study of the past as described in a written document. Events that occur before written records are considered prehistoric. It is an umbrella term related to past events as well as memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians.

History can also refer to an academic discipline that uses narration to examine and analyze the sequence of past events, and objectively determine the pattern of cause and effect that determines it. Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspectives" on contemporary problems.

Common stories for certain cultures, but not supported by external sources (such as stories about King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legend, as they do not show the "uninterested inquiry" required of historical discipline. Herodotus, a Greek historian of the 5th century BC is considered in the Western tradition as "the father of history", and, along with his contemporary Thucydides, helped form the basis for the modern study of human history. Their work continues to be read today, and the gap between cultural-focused Herodotus and military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contradiction or approach in modern history writing. In East Asia, the historical records of the country, Spring and Autumn have been known to be compiled as early as 722 BC even though only the 2nd century BC text still exists.

Ancient influences have helped to spawn a variant interpretation of the historical traits that have evolved over the centuries and are constantly changing today. The study of modern history is extensive, and includes the study of specific areas and studies of topical elements or particular themes of historical inquiry. Often history is taught as part of elementary and secondary education, and historical academic studies are a major discipline in university studies.

Video History

Etymology

The word history ultimately comes from the Ancient Greek ??????? ( historia ), meaning "question", "knowledge of inquiry", or "judge". That is in the sense that Aristotle uses the word in ???? ?? ??? ???????? ( PerÃƒÆ'Ã‚Â¬ TÃƒÆ' ZÃƒÆ'Ã‚'a? istorÃƒÆ'ai "Question about Animals"). Ancestral words ????? is proved early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, Athena ephebes poem, and in the Boiotic inscription (in legal sense, either "judge" or "witness", or similar).

The Greek word is borrowed into Classical Latin as historia , meaning "investigation, investigation, research, account, description, written report of past events, historical writing, historical narratives, recording knowledge of past events , stories, narratives ". History was borrowed from Latin (perhaps through Old Irish or Old Welsh) into Old English as stÃƒÆ'Ã‚|r ('history, narration, story'), but this word falling out of use at the end of the Old English period.

Meanwhile, when Latin became Old French (and Anglo-Norman), historicalia developed into forms such as istorie , estoire and < i) historie , with new developments in the sense of: "an explanation of one's life events (early 12th century), chronicle, story of events relevant to a group of people or people in general (1155), dramatic or pictorial representation of historical events (c 1240), the body of knowledge relative to human evolution, science (c 1265), narrative of real events or delusions, stories (c 1462).

From the Anglo-Norman it was history borrowed to Central English, and this time the loan jammed. It appeared in the 13th century Ancrene Wisse, but it seems to have been a common word at the end of the fourteenth century, with early endorsement appearing in John Gower Confessio Amantis from the 1390s [ VI.1383): "I found in a compiled bok For this old histoire matiere, | Which does not come to my memo". In Central English, the meaning of history is the general "story". Limitations on the meaning of "branches of knowledge related to past events, formal records or studies of past events, especially human affairs" emerged in the mid-fifteenth century.

With the Renaissance, the notion of the older word is revived, and in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used this term in the late sixteenth century, when he wrote of "Natural History". For him, historia is "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", a kind of knowledge given by memory (while science is given by reason, and poetry is provided by fantasy).

In the expression of linguistic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese (? Vs.?) Now points to separate words for human history and general storytelling. In the most modern German, French, and Germanic and Roman languages, which are very synthetic and very inflection, the same word is still used to mean "history" and "story".

The adjective historical is evidenced from 1661, and historic from 1669.

Historians in the sense of "historical investigators" evidenced from 1531. In all European languages, substantive "history" is still used to mean "what happens with men", and "scientific studies of what is happening", the last sense sometimes distinguished by capital letters, "History", or word historiography .

Maps History

Description

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to give lessons to their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of "true discourses of the past" through the production of narratives and analyzes of past events related to mankind. The modern historical discipline is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.

All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form are historical records. The task of historical discourse is to identify the most useful sources that can contribute to the production of accurate accounts of the past. Therefore, the constitutional archive of historians is the result of restricting the more general archives by invalidating the use of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent "the real past").

The study of history is sometimes classified as part of the humanities and at other times as part of the social sciences. It can also be seen as a bridge between the two broad areas, incorporating the methodology of both. Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification. In the 20th century, the French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, using external disciplines such as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.

Traditionally, historians have recorded events in the past, either in writing or by continuing oral traditions, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians also used sources such as monuments, inscriptions, and drawings. In general, the source of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is preserved physically, and historians often consult with all three. But writing is a marker that separates history from what happened before.

Archeology is a very helpful discipline in dealing with buried sites and objects, which, after being excavated, contribute to the study of history. But archeology rarely stands alone. It uses a narrative source to complement its invention. However, archeology is based on a variety of methodologies and approaches independent of history; that is to say, archeology does not "fill the void" in a textual source. Indeed, "historical archeology" is a particular branch of archeology, often contrary to its conclusions to contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, excavator and historical translator of Annapolis, Maryland, USA; has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents and material records, demonstrating the ownership of slaves and the inequality of wealth seen through the study of the total historical environment, apart from the ideology of "freedom" inherent in the present written document.

There are various ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. This division is not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in the "International Women's Movement in the Transitionary Era, 1830-1975." It is possible for historians to pay attention to themselves with very specific and very general, although modern trends have led to specialization. The area called Big History rejects this specialization, and looks for universal patterns or trends. History is often studied with several practical or theoretical purposes, but can also be learned from a simple intellectual curiosity.

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History and prehistory

World history is the memory of past experiences of Homo sapiens sapiens around the world, as the experience has been preserved, mostly in written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the restoration of knowledge about the past in areas where there is no written record, or where the writing of culture is not understood. By studying paintings, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even without written records. Since the 20th century, prehistoric studies are considered important to avoid the implicit exclusion of the history of certain civilizations, such as Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world. In 1961, the English historian E. H. Carr wrote:

The demarcation line between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people stop living only in the present, and become consciously interested in both their past and future. History begins with the surrender of tradition; and tradition means bringing habits and lessons from the past into the future. Past recordings are being stored for the benefit of future generations.

This definition falls within the scope of history of strong community interests, such as the Indigenous Australians and New Zealand M? Ori in the past, and oral records maintained and passed on to the next generation, even before their contact with European civilization.

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Historiography

Historiography has a number of related meanings. First, it can refer to how history has been generated: the story of methodological development and practice (eg, the shift from short-term biographical narratives to long-term thematic analysis). Second, it may refer to what has been produced: a special body of historical writing (eg, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "medieval historical works written during the 1960s"). Third, it may refer to why history was produced: The philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of past descriptions, this third conception may relate to the first two in an analysis that usually focuses on narrative, interpretation, world view, use of evidence, or other historian's presentation methods. Professional historians also debate whether history can be taught as a single, coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives.

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Historical philosophy

Historical philosophy is a branch of philosophy about the ultimate meaning, if any, of human history. Furthermore, he speculates on the teleological possibilities for his development - that is, he asks whether there is any design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in the process of human history. Historical philosophy should not be equated with historiography, which is a study of history as an academic discipline, and thus concerns its methods and practices, and its development as a discipline over time. Historical philosophy should not be equated with the history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas through time.

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Historical method

The historical method consists of the techniques and guidelines used by historians to use primary sources and other evidence to examine and then write history.

Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC - ca.425 BC) has been generally recognized as the "father of history". However, his contemporary Thucydides (c 460 BC - about 400 BC) are credited for approaching history with well-developed historical methods in his Peloponnesian War History . Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, considers history as the product of human choice and action, and sees cause and effect, not as a result of divine intervention. In his historical method, Thucydides emphasizes chronology, a neutral point of view, and that the human world is the result of human action. Greek historians also view history as a cycle, with recurring events on a regular basis.

There are historical traditions and the use of sophisticated historical methods in ancient China and medieval times. The foundation for professional historiography in East Asia was founded by the historian of the Han dynasty court known as Sima Qian (145-90 BC), author of the Historian Supreme Record ( Shiji ). For the quality of his work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as the father of Chinese historiography. Chinese historians of the later dynasties in China used Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature.

St. Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the medieval period. Through the period of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, history is often studied through a holy or religious perspective. Around 1800, the German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought a more secular philosophy and approach to the study of history.

In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the early Arab historian and sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of seven mistakes which he thought that historians regularly committed. In this critique, he approached the past as a strange thing and needed interpretation. The authenticity of Ibn Khaldun is to claim that cultural differences from other ages must regulate the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish principles which he thinks may be to attempt evaluation, and finally, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, to judge culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "superstitious blanks and uncritical acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to study history, and he often referred to it as his "new science". His historical method also laid the foundations for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda, and systematic biases in history, and is therefore regarded as "the father of historiography" or "the father of historical philosophy."

In the West, historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and 18th centuries, mainly in France and Germany. The 19th century historian with the greatest influence on the method was Leopold von Ranke in Germany.

In the twentieth century, academic historians were less focused on an epic nationalist narrative, which often tended to glorify nations or great men, to a more objective and complex analysis of social and intellectual power. The main trend of historical methodology in the 20th century is the tendency to treat history more as a social science than as art, which has traditionally been the case. Some of the major advocates of history as a social science are the diverse collections of scholars including Fernand Braudel, EH Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel, Lucien Febvre, and Lawrence Stone. Many proponents of history as a social science have been or are known for their multidisciplinary approach. Braudel combines history with geography, Bracher's history with political science, Fogel's history with economics, Gay history with psychology, Triggering history with archeology while Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre and Le Roy Ladurie have different and different ways in history coupled with sociology, geography, anthropology, and economics. Recently, the field of digital history has begun to discuss how to use computer technology to ask new questions to historical data and produce digital scholarships.

Contrary to historical claims as a social science, historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb, and Gerhard Ritter argue that the key to the work of the historian is the power of imagination, and therefore argues that history must be understood as art. The French historian associated with the Annales School introduces quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of distinctive people, and stands out in the formation of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalitÃƒ Â© s ). Intellectual historians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte, and George Mosse have debated the importance of ideas in history. American historians, motivated by the era of civil rights, focus on previously neglected ethnic, racial and socioeconomic groups. Another genre of social history that emerged in the post-World War II era was Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday Life). Experts such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw, and Detlev Peukert sought to examine how everyday life for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany, especially in the Nazi period.

Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, EP Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, CLR James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer and Christopher Hill have attempted to validate Karl Marx's theories by analyzing the history of Marxist Perspective. In response to Marxist interpretations of history, historians such as FranÃƒÆ'Ã‚Â§ois Furet, Richard Pipes, J.C. D. Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner and Robert Conquest have offered an anti-Marxist interpretation of history. Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt argue for the importance of studying women's experiences in the past. In recent years, postmodernists have challenged the validity and need to study history on the basis that all history is based on personal interpretation of the source. In his 1997 book In Defense of History, Richard J. Evans defended historical value. Another historical defense of postmodernist criticism is the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History.

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Marxian history theory

The Marxist theory of historical materialism says that society is essentially determined by the material conditions at a certain time - in other words, the relationships that are shared with each other to meet basic needs such as feeding, clothing and housing themselves and their families. Overall, Marx and Engels claim to have identified five successive stages of the development of this material condition in Western Europe. Marxist historiography was once an orthodoxy in the Soviet Union, but since the collapse of communism there in 1991, Mikhail Krom has said that he has been reduced to a scholarship margin.

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Study area

Period

Historical studies often focus on events and developments that occur in a particular time block. Historians give this time period of time to allow "organizing ideas and generalizing classifications" for use by historians. The names given for a period may vary with geographic location, as may be the start and end dates of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the calendar system used. Most of the periods are built retrospectively and thus reflect the value judgments made about the past. The way the period is built and the names given to them can influence the way they are viewed and learned.

Prehistoric Periodization

The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archaeologists, who have entirely different devices and theories. The usual method for the periodization of distant prehistoric past, in archeology is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age and their sub-divisions also based on different styles of material remnants. Despite the development over the last few decades of capability through radiocarbon dating and other scientific methods to provide actual dates for many sites or artifacts, this long-standing scheme seems to be in use. In many cases the culture adjacent to the writing has left some cultural history without it, which can be used.

Geographic location

Certain geographical locations can form the basis of historical studies, for example, continents, countries and cities. Understanding why historic events occur is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. Weather patterns, water supplies, and landscapes where all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying Egyptian geography was essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile, which floods every year, saving the land on its banks. The fertile soil can help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That means everyone does not have to farm, so some people can do other work that helps develop civilization.

Territory

The history of Africa begins with the first appearance of modern humans on the continent, which continues to be modern as a patchwork of diverse and politically developed nation states.
American history is a collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean.
- The history of North America is the study of the past that is passed down from generation to generation in the continents of the northern and western hemispheres of Earth.
- The history of Central America is the study of the past that is passed down from generation to generation in the continents of the Earth's western hemisphere.
- The history of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence in which the remnants of 7,000 years have been found.
- The history of South America is the study of the past that is passed down from generation to generation in the continents of the southern and western hemispheres of Earth.
Antarctic history arises from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the southernmost parts of the world.
The history of Australia begins with the documentation of Makassar trade with the Indigenous Australians on the north coast of Australia.
The history of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years when it was discovered and settled by Polynesian, who developed the M culture? different ori centered on kinship and land relationships.
The history of the Pacific Islands includes the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
The history of Eurasia is the collective history of several different coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, which are linked by the mass of Eurasian pasture interiors in Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
- European history explains the passage of time from humans who inhabit the continent of Europe to the present day.
- Asian history can be seen as the collective history of several different coastal areas, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East that are linked by the Eurasian prairie interior masses.
  - The history of East Asia is a study of the past that passed from generation to generation in East Asia.
  - The history of the Middle East begins with the earliest civilizations in the area now known as the Middle East which was founded around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq).
  - The history of India is the study of the past that is passed down from generation to generation in the sub-Himalayan region.
  - The history of Southeast Asia has been characterized as an interaction between regional players and foreign powers.

Military history

Military history concerns war, strategy, fighting, weapons, and combat psychology. The "new military history" since the 1970s is more concerned with soldiers than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the impact of wider war on society and culture.

Religious history

The history of religion has been a major theme for secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academics. Leading journals include Church History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range from political and cultural dimensions and art, to theology and liturgy. These subjects study the religions of all regions and regions of the world in which people live.

Social history

Social history , sometimes called new social history , is a field that covers the history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions to face life. In the "golden age" it was a major field of growth in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still well represented in the history department. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of history professors at American universities identifying with social history increased from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%. In the history department of British universities in 2007, of 5,723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while political history came next with 1425 (25%). The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and often included political movements, such as Populism, which was "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history is contrasted with political history, intellectual history, and the history of great men. The British historian G. M. Trevelyan sees it as a connecting point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, barren economic history and political history are incomprehensible." Although this field is often viewed negatively as history with politics is abandoned, it has also been maintained as "history with people reinserted."

Subfields

The main sub-heads of social history include:

Demographic history
Education history
Ethnic history
Family history
Work history
Rural history
The history of the city
- American urban history
Women's history

Smaller features include:

Childhood history
Sex history

Cultural history

Cultural history replaced social history as a dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. This usually combines anthropological and historical approaches to see the language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the narrative notes and descriptions of the past knowledge, customs, and art of a group of people. How people build their memories of the past is the main topic. Cultural history including art studies in society is also the study of human visual images and production (iconography).

Diplomatic history

Diplomatic history focuses on the relations between countries, especially on diplomacy and causes of war. Recently seen on the causes of peace and human rights. This usually presents the viewpoint of foreign offices, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is a study of the behavior of international relations between countries or across national borders over time. Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic history supersedes constitutional history as the preeminent historical inquiry, as well as the most important, most precise and most sophisticated historical study." He added that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to replace it.

Economic history

Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more towards economic departments and away from traditional historical departments. Business history deals with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government regulations, employment relationships, and impacts on society. It also includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. This is related to economic history; Business history is most often taught in business schools.

Environmental history

Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to see the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activity on it.

History of the world

The history of the world is the study of the great civilization over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a field of teaching, not a field of research. It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after 1980 with the realization that students need a wider exposure to the world as a result of globalization.

This has led to a very controversial interpretation by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others.

The World History Association publishes the World History Journal every quarter since 1990. The H-World discussion list serves as a communications network among the world's history practitioners, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliography and book reviews.

History of people

People's history is a kind of historical work that tries to take historical events from the perspective of ordinary people. History of people is the history of the world which is the story of the movement of the masses and outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other types of writing about history are the main focus, which includes the deprived, the oppressed, the poor, the unsuitable, and the forgotten. The authors are usually on the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the History Workshop movement in England in the 1960s.

Intellectual history

The intellectual and historical history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, focusing on their intellectuals and books on the one hand, and on the other hand the study of ideas as a bodyless object with their own careers.

Sex history

Gender history is a sub-field of the study of History and Gender, which looks to the past from a gender perspective. In many ways, the development of women's history. Despite its relatively short age, Gender History (and Pioneer of Women's History) has a rather significant influence on general historical studies. Since the 1960s, when the first small field initially reached the acceptance measure, it has gone through a number of different phases, each with its own challenges and outcomes. Although some changes in historical studies have been quite clear, such as the increasing number of books on famous women or just the recognition of more women into the profession of history, other influences are more subtle.

Public history

Public history describes the various activities undertaken by people with some training in historical disciplines that generally work out special academic settings. The practice of public history has deep roots in the fields of historical preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curators, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the US and Canada in the late 1970s, and its field has become increasingly professional ever since. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of government.

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Historian

Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. They find this information through archaeological evidence, a primary source written from the past and various other means such as place names. In the list of historians, historians can be grouped by the order of the historical period in which they write, which should not be the same as the period in which they are specializing. Historical writers and annalists, though they are not historians in the true sense, are also often included.

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Historical judgment

Since the 20th century, Western historians have denied aspirations to provide "historical judgments." The purpose of the historical judgment or interpretation is separate from the judgment of the law, which needs to be formulated quickly after the event and becomes final. The problem with historical judgment is collective memory.

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Pseudohistory

Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts that are meant to be historical but which depart from a standard historiographical convention in a way that undermines their conclusions. Closely related to the misleading historical revisionism, works drawing the controversial conclusions of new, speculative, or debatable historical evidence, particularly in the sphere of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.

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History of teaching

Scholarship vs. teaching

Great intellectual battles took place in England in the early 20th century concerning the place of history teaching at the university. In Oxford and Cambridge, scholarships were ignored. Professor Charles Harding Firth, Professor of Regius Oxford History in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited for producing superficial journalists. Oxford tutors, who had more votes than professors, fought back to defend their system by saying that it succeeded in producing exceptional British statesmen, administrators, clergymen, and diplomats, and the mission was as valuable as the training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forces young intellectuals to teach in remote schools, such as the University of Manchester, where Thomas Frederick Tout professionalises the Historical degree program by introducing studies of original sources and requiring thesis writing.

In the United States, scholarships are centered in the major universities that produce PhDs, while a large number of other colleges and universities focus on undergraduate teaching. The trend in the 21st century is for schools that are increasingly demanding the academic productivity of their younger tenure-track teachers. In addition, universities are increasingly reliant on cheap part-time helpers to do most of the classroom teaching.

Nationalism

From the origins of the national school system in the nineteenth century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a top priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, thus giving students a shared heritage with Europe. In the US after 1980, attention is increasingly moving toward teaching the history of the world or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students to live in a global economy.

At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to the social sciences or the humanities. Many see the field from both perspectives.

The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by Nouvelle histoire which was disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pÃƒÆ' Ã‚ Â© dagogiques and Enseignement and other journals for teachers. Also influential is the National Institute de recherche et de documentation pÃƒÆ' Ã‚ Â© dagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, Inspector General of teacher training, said children's students must learn about the historian's approach as well as facts and dates. Louis FranÃƒÆ'Ã‚Â§ois, Dean of the History/Geography group at the National Education Inspectorate suggested that teachers should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" that would give students "a great blessing of discovery." Proponents say it's a reaction to the memorization of names and dates that characterize teaching and make students bored. The traditionalists strongly protest it is a postmodern innovation that threatens to leave young people who do not know French patriotism and national identity.

Bias in school teaching

In most countries history textbooks are a tool for growing nationalism and patriotism, and giving students an official line of national enemies.

In many countries, historical textbooks are sponsored by national governments and written to place national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, the mention of the Nanking Massacre was removed from textbooks and the whole of the Second World War was given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained. It is a standard policy in the communist countries to present only rigid Marxist historiography.

Academic historians often battle against the politicization of textbooks, sometimes with success.

In 21st-century Germany, the historical curriculum is controlled by 16 states, and is not characterized by superpatriotism but by "almost passive and intentionally unpatriotic" and reflects "the principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe. on human rights, democracy and peace. "The result is that" German textbooks typically undermine national pride and ambition and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europe.

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References

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