A Doctor of Philosophy , Ph.D. , or DPhil ; Latin Philosophiae doctor ) is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most countries. PhD is awarded for the program throughout the vast field of academics. PhD completion is often a requirement for a job as a university professor, researcher, or scientist in various fields. Individuals who have earned a Doctor of Philosophy may, in most jurisdictions, use the title Doctor (often abbreviated "Dr") or, in non-English speaking countries, variants such as "Dr. Phil. "with their names, and can use post-nominal letters like" Ph.D. "," PhD "(depending on the awarding agency).
Requirements for earning a PhD degree vary according to country, institution, and time period, from initial level of research to a higher doctorate. During the study leading to a degree, students are called doctoral students or PhD students ; students who have completed all the coursework and comprehensive exams and are working on their thesis/dissertation are sometimes known as PhD candidates or PhD candidates (see: all but the dissertation). A student who achieves this level may be awarded a Philosophy Candidate degree in several institutions.
A PhD candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of an original academic research body, which is principally worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work in the presence of an expert panel appointed by the university. Universities sometimes provide doctorates other than PhD, such as Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.) for music players and Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) for professional educators. In 2005, the European University Association defined the Salzburg Principles, ten basic principles for the third degree of cycles (doctorate) in the Bologna Process. This was followed in 2016 by the Florence Principles, seven basic principles for a doctorate in arts organized by the European League of Institutes of Arts, which has been endorsed by the European Conservator Association, the International Association of Schools of Film and Television, the Association International Universities and Colleges Art, Design and Media, and Society for Artistic Research.
In the context of Doctor of Philosophy and other similar titles, the term "philosophy" does not refer to the field or academic disciplines of philosophy, but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, "love". wisdom. "In much of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and philosophy/theology) in addition to theology, law, and medicine (so-called professional, vocational or technical curricula) are traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe, the basic faculty of liberal arts is known as the "philosophical faculty".
Video Doctor of Philosophy
Terminology
This title is abbreviated PhD (sometimes Ph.D. in North America), from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor , pronounced as three separate letters ( Maps Doctor of Philosophy
History
Medieval and early modern Europe
At universities in medieval Europe, studies were held in four faculties: the basic faculty of art, and three higher theological, medical and legal faculties (canon law and civil law). All of these faculty are awarded intermediate degrees (bachelor of arts, theology, law, medicine) and the last degree. Initially, master's and doctor's degrees are used interchangeably for the last degree - Doctor's degree is merely a formality given to a Master/Master of the art - but by the end of the Middle Ages the term Master of Arts and Doctor of Theology/Divinity , Doctor of Law, and Doctor of Medicine have become standard in many places (although in German and Italian universities the term Doctor is used for all faculties).
Doctors in higher faculties are very different from current PhD degrees as they are awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work is required, only long terms and residency checks. In addition to this title, there are licensees. Initially this was a license to teach, given immediately before the master's or doctor's degree by the diocese where the university was located, but later developed into an academic degree in its own right, particularly in continental universities.
According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctorate was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. Doctoral degrees of philosophy were developed in Germany as Teacher's credentials in the 17th century (c.1652). There was no PhD in Germany before the 1650s (when they gradually began to replace the MA as the highest academic degree, it is arguably one of the earliest German PhD holders of Erhard Weigel (Dr. phil. Hab., Leipzig, 1652).
In theory, full study may, for example, lead the succession of Bachelor of Arts, Art License, Master of Arts or Bachelor of Medicine, Medical Licenses, Doctor of Medicine. But before the early modern era, there were many exceptions to this. Most students leave the university without becoming art experts, while regular visitors (members of the monastic order) can pass through the faculty of art entirely.
Education reform in Germany
This situation changed in the early 19th century through educational reform in Germany, the most strongly embodied in the model of the University of Berlin, established and controlled by the Prussian government in 1810. The faculty of arts, which in Germany labeled philosophical faculty, began to demand contributions to research , evidenced by the dissertation, for their final degree award, which is labeled Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated as Ph.D.) - originally this is only the German equivalent of a Master of Arts degree. While in the Middle Ages the faculty of art had a defined curriculum, based on trivium and quadrivium, in the 19th century it had come to the home of all courses in subjects now commonly referred to as the sciences and humanities. Professors throughout the humanities and sciences focus on their advanced research. Practically all funding comes from the central government, and it can be decided if the professor is politically unacceptable.
The reform proved to be very successful, and quite quickly German universities began attracting foreign students, mainly from the United States. American students will go to Germany to earn a PhD after studying for a bachelor's degree at an American college. So influential was this practice that was imported into the United States, where in 1861 Yale University began to award a PhD to a younger student who, after obtaining a bachelor's degree, had completed a specified postgraduate course and successfully defended a thesis or dissertation that contained the research original in science or in the humanities. In Germany, the name of the doctor was adapted after the philosophical faculty began to break apart. Dr. rer. grout. for a doctorate in the faculty of natural sciences - but in most English-speaking worlds, the name "Doctor of Philosophy" is maintained for doctoral research in all disciplines.
PhD degrees and similar awards spread throughout Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The title was introduced in France in 1808, replacing the diploma as the highest academic degree; to Russia in 1819, when the degree of Doctoral Degree Nauk , approximately equivalent to a PhD degree, gradually began to replace the specialist diploma, roughly equivalent to MA, as the highest academic degree; and in Italy in 1927, when the PhD gradually began to replace Laurea as the highest academic degree.
History in the United Kingdom
The research title first appeared in England at the end of the 19th century in the form of Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD) and others such as "higher doctor". The University of London introduced DSc in 1860, but as an advanced course, following directly from the BSc, rather than a research degree. The first higher doctor in the modern sense was the DSC Durham University, which was introduced in 1882. This was soon followed by other universities, including the University of Cambridge who founded the ScD in the same year and the University of London transformed the DSc into a research degree in 1885. This was, however, a very high level, rather than a research-level training degree at PhD - Harold Jeffrey said that getting Cambridge ScD was "roughly equivalent to that proposed for the Royal Society".
Finally, in 1917 the current PhD degree was introduced, along the lines of American and German models, and quickly became popular with British and foreign students. A slightly older level of Doctor of Science and Doctor of Literature/Letters still exist in British universities; along with Doctorate Degrees (DD), Doctor of Music (DMus), Doctor of Civil Law (DCL), and Doctor of Medicine (MD) are much older, they form higher doctorates, but regardless of their honors are rarely awarded.
In British universities (but not Scotland), the Faculty of Art had become dominant in the early nineteenth century. Indeed, the higher faculty has largely stopped growing, because medical training has shifted to teaching hospitals, legal training for the common law system is provided by the Courthouse Court (with a few minor exceptions, see Doctor 'Commons), and some students do formal learning in theology. This contrasts with the situation at continental European universities at the time, where the preparatory roles of the Faculty of Philosophy or the Arts were largely taken over by secondary education: in modern France, BaccalaurÃÆ'Â © at is an examination conducted at the end of secondary studies. Reforms at Humboldt University changed the Faculty of Philosophy or Art (and its newer successors such as the Faculty of Science) from the lower faculty to the equivalent of the Faculty of Law and Medicine.
There have been similar developments in many other continental European universities, and at least until the early 21st century reforms of many European countries (eg Belgium, Spain, and Scandinavian countries) have been in all the structural faculties of three degrees (or candidates) - delegates - doctor contrary to bachelor - master - doctor; the meaning of different degrees varies a lot from country to country. To this day, this also applies to papal titles in theology and canon law: for example, in Sacred theology is a Bachelor of Sacred Theology (STB), Sacred Theology License (STL), and Sacred Theology Doctor (STL). STD), and in Canon law: Bachelor of Canon Law (JCB), Canal Law License (JCL), and Doctor of Canon Law (JCD).
History in the United States
Until the mid-19th century, a higher degree was not a criterion for professorship in most colleges. That begins to change as more ambitious scholars in big schools go to Germany for 1 to 3 years to earn a PhD in science or humanities. Graduate school is slowly emerging in the United States. In 1861, Yale bestowed three of North America's first PhD titles to Eugene Schuyler, Arthur Williams Wright and James Morris Whiton, although honorary doctorates had been awarded in the United States for nearly a decade, with Bucknell University awarding Ebenezer Newton Elliott the first award in 1852.
In the next two decades, NYU, the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, and Princeton also began giving degrees. A major shift toward graduate education was foreseen by the opening of Clark University in 1887 offering only graduate programs and Johns Hopkins University focusing on its PhD program. In the 1890s, Harvard, Columbia, Michigan and Wisconsin were building a large graduate program, whose alumni were employed by a new research university. In 1900, 300 PhDs were awarded each year, mostly by six universities. No more studying in Germany. However, half of the institutions that awarded PhDs in 1899 were undergraduate institutions that awarded degrees for work done away from college. Degree awarded by universities without a valid doctoral program accounted for about a third of the 382 doctors recorded by the US Department of Education in 1900, of which 8-10% were honorary.
At the beginning of the 20th century, US universities received low international awards and many American students still traveled to Europe to earn a PhD. Lack of centralized authority means everyone can start university and give a PhD degree. This led to the establishment of the American University Association by 14 leading research universities (generating close to 90% of the approximately 250 valid doctoral studies awarded in 1900), with one of the main objectives being to "increase the opinions entertained overseas. Doctor's Degree ".
In Germany, national governments fund universities and research programs of prominent professors. It is impossible for professors who are not approved by Berlin to train graduate students. In the United States, on the other hand, private universities and state universities are equally independent of the federal government. Independence is high, but funding is low. This breakthrough came from a private foundation, which began to regularly support research in science and history; Large companies sometimes support engineering programs. The postdoctoral fellowship was founded by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1919. Meanwhile, a leading university, in collaboration with educated societies, created a network of scientific journals. "Publish or destroy" becomes a formula for faculty progress in research universities. After World War II, state universities across the country thrived deeply on undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added a research program leading to a master's or doctoral degree. Their postgraduate faculty should have appropriate publication records and research grants. The late 20th century, "publish or perish" became increasingly important in smaller colleges and universities.
Requirements
The detailed requirements for PhD degree awards vary across the world and even from school to school. It is usually necessary for students to hold an Honors degree or Master's Degree with a high academic standing, to be considered for a PhD program. In the US, Canada, India, and Denmark, for example, many universities require non-research courses for PhD degrees. In other countries (like the UK) there is generally no such condition, although this varies by university and field. Some universities or departments specify additional requirements for students who do not have a bachelor's degree or equivalent or higher. To apply for successful PhD admissions, copies of academic transcripts, letters of recommendation, research proposals, and personal statements are often required. Most universities also invite for a special interview before entering.
Candidates must submit a project, a thesis or dissertation often consisting of an original academic research body, which is principally worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed context. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work in the presence of a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel of examining experts who determines whether the dissertation is principally passable and any issues that need to be addressed before the dissertation can be ratified.
Some universities in the non-English speaking world have begun to adopt the same standards as the anglophone Ph.D. degree for their research doctor (see Bologna process).
A PhD student or candidate is conventionally required to study on campus under strict supervision. With the popularity of distance education and e-learning technology, some universities are now accepting students enrolled in a part-time mode of distance education.
In the "sandwich Ph.D." programs, PhD candidates do not spend all their studies at the same university. Instead, Ph.D. candidates spend the first and last time of the program at their home university, and among doing research at other institutions or field research. Sometimes "sandwich Ph.D." will be awarded by two universities.
Confirm PhD
A PhD Confirmation is an initial presentation or lecture given by a PhD candidate for the faculty and possibly other interested members. The following lectures after appropriate topics have been identified, and may include such things as research objectives, methodologies, first results, planned publications (or finishes), etc.
Confirmation lectures can be seen as trials for final public defenses, although faculty members at this stage can still largely influence the course of research. At the end of the lecture, PhD candidates can be seen as "confirmed" - faculty members give their approval and belief that the research is well directed and will with high probability of producing successful candidates.
In the United States, this is generally called forward to Candidacy, a confirmation event called the Candidate Exam.
Values ​​and criticism
PhD students are often motivated to pursue a PhD with a scientific and humanistic curiosity, a desire to contribute to the academic community, service to others, or personal development. Careers in the academic world generally require a PhD, though, in some countries, it is possible to achieve a relatively high position without a doctorate. In North America, more and more professors are required to have PhDs, as the percentage of faculty with PhD degrees is used as a measure of university rankings.
Motivation may also include an increase in salary, but in many cases, this is not the result. Research by Casey shows that, over all subjects, PhDs provide a 26% income premium over unaccredited graduates, but note that the master's degree provides a premium of 23% and a bachelor of 14%. Although this is a small return to the individual (or even an overall deficit when tuition fees and lost income during training are taken into account), he claims there are significant benefits to the community for additional research training. However, some studies show that highly qualified workers are often less satisfied and less productive in their work. These difficulties are increasingly felt by professional degree graduates, such as law schools, looking for work. Ph.D. students often have to take on debt to take the degree.
A PhD is also required in several positions outside the academia, such as research work at major international institutions. In some cases, the Executive Director of some kind of foundation may be expected to hold a PhD. Doctor A is sometimes perceived as a necessary qualification in a particular field of work, as in foreign policy think-tanks: US News wrote in 2013 that "[i] F has a master's degree in the minimum is de rigueur in Washington's foreign policy world, it is not surprising that many are starting to feel that PhDs are the necessary escalation, another case of high-cost signaling to prospective employers. "Similarly, an article in Australian public service states that" credentialism in public service is seeing a dramatic increase in the number of graduate positions will be PhD and master's degrees become entry level qualification. "
The Economist published an article in 2010 citing various criticisms of the state of Ph.D. This includes predictions by economist Richard B. Freeman that, based on pre-2000 data, only 20% of natural science Ph.D. students will find employment in faculty in the US, and in Canada 80% of fellow postdoctoral researchers earn less than or equal to the average construction worker ($ 38,600 per year). According to the article, only the fastest developing countries (eg China or Brazil) have PhD deficiencies.
The US higher education system often offers little incentive to move students through Ph.D. programs quickly and can even provide incentives to slow it down. To solve this problem, the United States introduced the title of Doctor of Arts in 1970 with seed money from the Carnegie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching. The goal of the Doctor of Science degree is to shorten the time required to complete a degree by focusing on pedagogy on research, although Art Doctor still contains a significant research component. Germany is one of the few countries involved in this issue, and has done so by conceptualizing Ph.D. program for training for a career, outside academia, but still at a high level. This development can be seen in the number of Ph.D. holders, usually from the legal, technical, and economic fields, in the top corporate and administrative positions. To a lesser extent, the British research council has addressed this issue by introducing, since 1992, EngD.
Mark C. Taylor argued in 2011 in Nature that the total reform of Ph.D. programs in almost every field are required in the US and that the pressure to make necessary changes must come from many sources (students, administrators, the public and private sector, etc.). Other articles in Nature have also examined the issue of PhD reform.
Freeman Dyson, professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, opposed the PhD system and did not have a PhD.
National variation
In German-speaking countries; most Eastern European countries; the successor state of the former Soviet Union; most of Africa, Asia, and many Spanish-speaking countries, the appropriate level for the Doctor of Philosophy is simply called "Doctor" ( Doctoral ), and the subject area is distinguished by a Latin suffix (eg, "Dr. med. "for Doctor medicinae , Doctor of Medicine;" Dr. rer. nat. "for Doctor rerum naturalium , Doctor of Natural Science; "Dr. phil." for Doctor philosophiae , Doctor of Philosophy;" Dr. iur. "for Doctor iuris , Doctor of Law).
Degrees all over the world
UNESCO, in the International Standard Education Classification (ISCED), states that: "The programs to be classified on ISCED level 8 are mentioned in many ways around the world such as PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.DD, Doctor or term Similarly, it is important to note that programs with names similar to 'doctors' may only be included in ISCED level 8 if they meet the criteria described in Paragraph 263. For international comparative purposes, the term 'doctoral or equivalent' is used to label ISCED level 8 ". Argentina
Reception
In Argentina, admission to a PhD program at a public Argentine University requires full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate degree. Non-Argentine Masters degrees are generally accepted in the PhD program when a degree comes from a recognized university.
Funding
While most graduate students finance their tuition and living expenses by teaching or working in private and state-run institutions, international agencies, such as the Fulbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to provide full scholarships for lectures with proportion for housing.
Requirements for completion
After completing at least two years of research and courses as a graduate student, a candidate must show genuine and genuine contributions to his specific field of knowledge within the framework of academic excellence. The work of a doctoral candidate must be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by the Doctoral Committee. This committee should consist of testers who are outside the program, and at least one of them must also be outside the institution. The Doctor's academic degree, each to the field of correspondent science that the candidate has contributed to the original and rigorous research, was received after the successful defense of a candidate's dissertation.
Australia
Reception
Admission to a Ph.D. Programs in Australia require applicants to demonstrate the capacity to conduct research in the proposed field of study. The standard requirement is a bachelor's degree with either a first class or a second class honors degree. A master's degree in research and a college master's degree with 25% research component is usually considered equivalent. It is also possible for a master's degree research student to 'upgrade' to a Ph.D. nomination after showing sufficient progress.
Scholarships
Ph.D. students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for a Ph.D. degree. The most common of these is the Government-funded Australian Postgraduate Award (APA) until its dissolution in 2017. It is superseded by the Research Training Program (RTP), which is awarded to students of "extraordinary research potential", which provides students with a living salary. about A $ 27,000 a year (tax free). RTP is paid for a period of 3 years, while a 6 month extension is usually possible by citing the delay of student control. Some universities also fund similar scholarships that match the amount of WHAT. Due to the continuous increase in the cost of living, many Ph.D. students are forced to live below the poverty line. In addition to the more common RTP scholarships and universities, Australian students have other scholarship funding sources, coming from industry, private companies and organizations.
Cost
Australian citizens, permanent residents and New Zealanders are not charged a course fee for a Ph.D. or master's degree of research, with the exception of some university student services and facility fees (SSAF) set by each university and usually involves the largest amount allowed by the Australian government. All fees are paid by the Australian government, except for SSAF, under the Research Training Program. International students and undergraduates must pay tuition fees unless they receive a scholarship to cover them.
Requirements for completion
Terms of completion vary. Most Ph.D. Australia programs do not have the required task components. Credit points are inherent to the degree of everything in the research product, which is usually a 80,000 word thesis that makes a significant new contribution to the field. Recent pressure at higher levels by research (HDR) students to publish has resulted in an increased interest in Ph.D by publication as opposed to a more traditional Ph.D with a dissertation, which typically requires a minimum of two publications but also requires traditional thesis elements such as preliminary exceptions, and linking chapters between papers. Ph.D. thesis sent to external examiners who are experts in the field of research and who have not been involved in the work. Testers are nominated by candidate universities and their identities are often not disclosed to the candidate until the examination is completed. Formal oral defense is generally not part of the thesis examination, especially because of the distance to be taken by the foreign examiner; However, since 2016, there is a tendency to apply this at many Australian universities.
Canada
Reception
Admission to a doctoral program at a Canadian university usually requires completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with a high enough value and proven research capability. In some cases, a student may develop directly from an Honors Degree to a Ph.D. program; other courses allow students to attend a doctoral program after a year of outstanding work in the Master's program (without having to complete a Master's).
The application package usually includes research proposals, reference letters, transcripts, and in some cases, a sample of writing or a Graduate Note score. General criteria for candidate Ph.D. The student is a comprehensive or qualifying exam, a process that often begins in the second year of the graduate program. Generally, successful completion of qualifying exams allows continuation in the graduate program. Formats for this exam include oral exams by a student faculty committee (or separate qualification committee), or written tests designed to demonstrate students' knowledge in a specific area (see below) or both.
In English-speaking universities, students may also be required to demonstrate English proficiency, usually by achieving acceptable scores on standardized exams (eg Test of English as a Foreign Language). Depending on the field, students may also be required to demonstrate proficiency in one or more additional languages. Prospective students applying to a French-speaking university may also have to demonstrate English proficiency.
Funding
While some students work outside the university (or at university students' work), in some courses students are advised (or should agree) not to devote more than ten hours per week to activities (eg, jobs) outside of their studies, especially if they has been given funds. For a large and prestigious scholarship, such as those from NSERC and Fonds quÃÆ'Â © bÃÆ' Â © cois de la recherche sur la nature and technology, this is an absolute requirement.
At some universities in Canada, most Ph.D. students receive an award equivalent to part or all of the tuition fee for the first four years (this is sometimes called a tuition delay or a tuition waiver). Other funding sources include teaching assistants and research assistants; experience as a teaching assistant is recommended but not required in many programs. Some courses may require all Ph.D. candidates for teaching, which can be done under the supervision of their superiors or regular faculty. In addition to these funding sources, there are also various competitive scholarships, scholarships, and awards available, such as those offered by the federal government through NSERC, CIHR, or SSHRC.
Requirements for completion
In general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of courses and comprehensive examinations. At this stage, students are known as "PhD students" or "doctoral students". It is usually expected that students will complete most of the required courses at the end of this stage. In addition, it is usually necessary that at the end of eighteen to thirty six months after the first registration, students will successfully complete a comprehensive exam.
Upon successful completion of a comprehensive exam, students become known as "Ph.D. candidates." From this stage, most of the time students will be devoted to their own research, culminating in completion of a Ph.D. thesis or dissertation. The last requirement is the oral defense of the thesis, which is open to the public in some, but not all, universities. In most universities in Canada, the time required to complete a Ph.D. degree usually ranges from four to six years. However, it is not uncommon for students to be unable to complete all the requirements in six years, especially considering that funding packages often support students only for two to four years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion of the thesis supervisor and/or department chair. Alternative arrangements exist where a student is allowed to allow their enrollment in the program interval at the end of six years and re-apply once the thesis is completed in draft form. The general rule is that postgraduate students are required to pay tuition until the initial thesis delivery has been received by the thesis office. In other words, if Ph.D. students postpone or postpone their initial submission of their thesis, they are still obliged to pay the fee until the time the thesis is received properly.
Colombia
Reception
In Colombia, Ph.D. admissions may require a master's degree (Magster) at some universities, especially public universities. However, it can also be applied to a doctorate degree directly in certain cases, in accordance with the jury's recommendation on the thesis proposal.
Funding
Most graduate students in Colombia must finance their tuition fees by teaching assistant chairs or research work. Some institutions such as Colciencias, Colfuturo, and Icetex provide scholarships or rewards in the form of forgivable loans.
Requirements for completion
After two or two and a half years the doctoral research work is expected to be submitted in the form of oral qualifications, in which suggestions and corrections concerning research hypotheses and methodologies, as well as when research work is undertaken. Ph.D. a degree is only accepted after a successful defense of the candidate's thesis is conducted (four or five years after registration), and most of the time also requires the most important results that have been published in at least one high-impact international peer-reviewed journal.
Finnish
In Finland, the level of philosophy tohtori (abbreviated FT ) is given by traditional universities, such as the University of Helsinki. A Master's degree is required, and the doctor combines about 4-5 years of research (by 3-5 scientific articles, some of whom must be first authors) and 60 ECTS study points. Other universities such as the Aalto University awards degree such as tohtori technicians ( TkT , engineering), taiteen tohtori ( TaT , art ), etc., translated in English to Doctor of Science (D.Sc.), and they are formally equivalent. The licentiate ( philosophy lisensiaatti or FL ) takes only 2-3 years of research and sometimes done before the FT.
French
History
Prior to 1984 three doctoral studies were in France: Doctoral State ( doctorat d'ÃÆ'â € tat , old doctorate introduced in 1808), doctor of the third cycle ( doctorat de troisiÃÆ'¨me cycle , was made in 1954 and shorter than a doctorate of State and a doctor-doctoral diploma ( diplÃÆ'Â'me de docteur-ingÃÆ' Â © nieur made in 1923), for technical research. After 1984, only one type of doctorate was left, called "doctorate" ( Doctor ). The latter was equivalent to a Ph.D.
Reception
Students pursuing Ph.D. the first degree must complete a master's degree program, which takes two years after graduating with a bachelor's degree (five years total). Candidates should seek funding and a formal doctoral adviser (Directeur de thÃÆ'¨se) with habilitation throughout the doctoral program.
Ph.D. admissions are given by graduate school (in French, "ÃÆ'Â © cole doctorale"). A Ph.D. candidates may attend some of the training in the positions offered by the graduate school while continuing their research in the laboratory. The research can be done in the laboratory, at the university, or at the company. In the latter case, the company hires a candidate and he is supervised by corporate tutors and lab professors. Validation Ph.D. The degree requires generally 3 to 4 years after the master's degree.
Funding
Financing Ph.D. the research mainly comes from funds for research of the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. The most common procedure is a short-term employment contract called a doctoral contract: the institution of higher education is the employer and the Ph.D. employee candidates. However, candidates can apply for funds from companies that can host him on the spot (as in the case where Ph.D candidates do their research in the company). When other situations are encountered, corporations and institutes may sign joint funding agreements so that candidates still have public doctoral contracts, but every day are in the company (for example, especially the case of the Scientific Cooperation Foundation (France)). Many other resources come from several regional/city projects, some associations, etc.
India
Reception
In India, generally, a master's degree is required to gain admission to a doctoral program. Signed directly to Ph.D. The post-bachelor program is also offered by IIT, IIIT, NIT and the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research. In some subjects, performing the Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) Is a prerequisite for starting a Ph.D. For funding/partnerships, it is necessary to qualify for the National Feasibility Test for Lectures and Junior Research fellowships (NET for LS and JRF) conducted by the federal research organization of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the University Grant Commission (UGC).
In recent years, there have been many changes in the rules relating to a Ph.D. in India. According to the new rules described by UGC, the university must take entrance examinations on the general ability and subject chosen. After completing this test, the elected candidate must appear for interview by the available supervisor/guide. Upon successful completion of the course, students are required to give a presentation of a research proposal (work plan or synopsis) at the beginning, submit progress reports, give a pre-submission presentation and ultimately defend the thesis in an open-voce defense viva.
German
Reception
In Germany, admission to a doctoral program is generally on the basis of having a higher degree (ie, master's degree, diplomacy, magister, or staatsexamen i/), mostly in related fields and has an above-average value. A candidate must also seek a permanent professor from the university to serve as a formal advisor and supervisor ( Betreuer ) from a dissertation throughout a doctoral program called Promotion . These Supervisors are informally referred to as Doctorvater or Doktormutter , which literally translates to "doctor's father" and "doctor's mother" respectively.
While most German doctorates are considered equivalent to PhDs, the exception is a medical doctorate, in which a "doctoral" dissertation is often co-authored with undergraduate studies. The European Research Council decided in 2010 that the doctors did not meet the international standards of PhD research degree. There are various forms of university-level institutions in Germany, but only professors of the "University" (Univ.-Prof.) Can function as a doctoral supervisor - "University of Applied Sciences" (Fachhochschulen) is not entitled to give a doctorate, although some exceptions apply to the rule this.
Structure
Depending on the university, doctoral students may be required to attend formal or lecture classes, some of them also including exams or other scientific assignments, to obtain one or more qualification certificates (Qualifikationsnachweise). Depending on the doctoral regulation (Promotionsordnung) of the university and sometimes on the status of doctoral students, the certificate may not be required. Typically, former students, research assistants or lecturers from the same university, may be spared from attending additional classes. Conversely, under the supervision of a single professor or advisory committee, they are expected to conduct independent research. In addition to doctoral studies, many doctoral candidates work as teaching assistants, research assistants, or lecturers.
Many universities have established intensive research on Graduiertenkollegs ("graduate college"), which is a graduate school that provides funding for doctoral studies.
Duration
The usual duration of the doctoral program is highly dependent on the subject and field of research; however, it often takes three to five years of full-time research work.
In 2014, the median age of Ph.D. graduates aged 30.4 years.
USSR, Russian Federation and former Soviet Republic
Level of Science Candidate (Russian: ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? was introduced there in 1934) and some Eastern Bloc countries (Czechoslovakia, Hungary) and still provided in some post-Soviet countries (Russian Federation, Belarus, and others). According to "Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in other countries", in countries with a two-tiered doctorate system (such as the Russian Federation, some post-Soviet countries, Germany, Poland, Austria and Switzerland), should be considered for recognition at the level first doctorate, and in countries with only one doctorate, Candidate Level Nauk should be considered for recognition as equivalent to Ph.D. degree.
Since most education systems have only one advanced research qualification that provides a doctorate or equivalent qualification (ISCED 2011, par 27), the Level of Science Candidate (Kandidat Nauk) of the former Soviet Union is usually considered at the same level as a doctorate or Ph.D. degree of these countries.
According to the Joint Statement by the Permanent Conference of Ministers of Education and Culture of LÃ © nder of the Federal Republic of Germany (Kultusministerkonferenz, KMK), the German Rector Conference (HRK) and the Ministry of Education and Professionals of the Russian Federation, the Level of Nauk Candidates is recognized in Germany at German and German level level Doctorate Nauk at German Habilitation level. The Level of Candidate Nauk in Russia is also officially recognized by the Government of the French Republic as the equivalent of a French doctorate.
According to the International Standard Education Classification (ISCED) 2011, for the purposes of international education statistics, ISCED Level 8 Candidate of Nauk (Candidate of Science), or "doctoral or equivalent", together with Ph.D., D.Phil., D.Litt., D.Sc., LL.D., Doctor or similar. This is mentioned in the Russian version of ISCED 2011 (par.262) on the UNESCO website as equivalent to a Ph.D. belonging to this level. In the same way as Ph.D. degree awarded in many English-speaking countries, Candidate of Nauk (Candidate of Science) allows its holder to reach Docent level. Second doctorate (or post-doctoral degree) in some post-Soviet countries called Doctor of Sciences (Russian: ????????? , Doctor Nauk) is given as an example of a second advanced research qualification or higher doctorate at ISCED 2011 (par.270) and is similar to Habilitation in Germany, Poland and several other countries. This is a higher qualification compared to Ph.D. as against the European Qualification Framework (EQF) or Dublin Explanation.
About 88% of Russian students studying at state universities are learning at the expense of budget funds. The average wage in Russia (as of August 2011) is $ 430 a year ($ 35/month). The average tuition fee at a graduate school is $ 2,000 per year.
Italy
History
The Dottorato di ricerca (research doctor), abbreviated as "Dott Ric." or "Ph.D.", is an academic degree awarded at the end of the course not less than three years, admission is based on entrance exams and academic rankings in the Bachelor of Arts ("Laurea Triennale") and Master of Arts ("Laurea Magistrale" or "Laurea Specialistica"). While a Ph.D. following the process of Bologna, M.D.-Ph.D. the program can be completed in two years.
The first institution in Italy to make a doctoral program (Ph.D.) was Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa in 1927 under the historic name "Diploma in Perfezionamento" . Furthermore, doctoral research or Ph.D. (Italian) Dottorato di ricerca in Italian was introduced by law and Presidential Decree in 1980, referring to academic teaching reforms , training and experiments in organizations and teaching methods.
Therefore, the Graduate School of Excellence in Italy (Scuola Superiore Universitaria ), also called the School of Excellence ( Scuole in Eccellenza ) such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies still retains history Their renowned "Diploma in Perfezionamento" Ph.D. title by law and Decision of MIUR. Reception
An open doctoral program, regardless of age or citizenship, for all persons who already hold a "laurea magistrale" (master's degree) or an overseas degree awarded admittedly equivalent to an Italian degree by the Committee responsible for an admission exam.
The number of places offered annually and the entrance examination details are set out in the inspection announcement.
Poland
Doctorate degree (Police doctoral ), abbreviated as Ph.D. (Polish) is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities in most fields as well as by the Polish Academy of Sciences, governed by the actions of the Polish parliament and government orders, in particular by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland. Generally, students with a master's degree or equivalent are accepted for doctoral entrance examinations. Title Ph.D. given to a scientist who 1) completes a minimum of 3 years Ph.D. study (Polish, studia doktoranckie ; not required to obtain a Ph.D.); 2) complete his theoretical scientific work and/or his laboratory; 3) pass all Ph.D. examination, 4) submitting his dissertation, a document presenting the research and findings of the author, 5) successfully defending his doctoral thesis. Usually, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral test, always public, by his supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.
Ukraine
Beginning in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ukraine: ?????????????? ) is the highest level of education and the first degree science. PhD is given in recognition of substantial contributions to scientific knowledge, the origin of new directions and visions in science. PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading to the university department in Ukraine. After completing a PhD, a PhD holder may choose to pursue his studies and earn a post-doctoral degree called "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc. Ukrainian Language: ????????? span>), which is the second and highest science degree in Ukraine.
The Doctorate was introduced in Sweden in 1477 and in Denmark-Norway in 1479 and is awarded in theology, law, and medicine, while the master's degree is the highest degree in the Faculty of Philosophy, equivalent to a doctorate.
The Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of the title known as philosophical doctors, based on the German model. Denmark and Norway both introduce Dr. Phil (os). degree in 1824, succeeded the title of Master as the highest degree, while Uppsala University of Sweden renamed his Master of Philosophy (Doctorary) degree in 1863. However, this degree became comparable to German Habilitation rather than a doctorate, because the Scandinavian countries do not have separate Habilitation.
The degree is not common and is not a prerequisite for employment as a professor; Instead, they are seen as a difference similar to the English (higher) doctorate (D.Litt., D.Sc.). Denmark introduces Ph.D. in 1989; it officially replaces the title of Licentiate and is considered inferior to dr. phil. degree; officially, ph.d. not considered a doctorate, but unofficially, this is referred to as a "smaller doctor", as opposed to dr. phil., "grand doctorate". The holder of ph.d. degrees are not entitled to self-styles as "Dr." Currently Denmark distinguishes between dr. phil. as a proper doctor and a degree higher than ph.d., while in Norway, the historical analog. philos. degree is officially considered equivalent to the new ph.d.
In Sweden, a doctorate of philosophy was introduced at the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Uppsala in 1863. In Sweden, the Latin term is officially translated into Swedish philosophy and is commonly abbreviated as fil. dr or FD. This degree represents the traditional Faculty of Philosophy and covers subjects from biology, physics, and chemistry, to language, history, and social sciences, becoming the highest degree in this discipline. Sweden currently has two degrees of research, the Licentiate degree, which is comparable to a Danish degree formerly known as the Licentiate and now as ph.d., and a higher philosophy doctor, Philosophy Doctor . Some universities in Sweden also use the term technological doctors for a doctorate awarded by a technology institute (for doctorates in engineering or related natural sciences such as materials science, molecular biology, computer science, etc.). The Swedish term fil. dr is often also used as a corresponding degree translation of eg. Denmark and Norway.
Singapore
Singapore has six universities offering doctoral study opportunities: the National University of Singapore, the Nanyang Technological University, the Singapore Management University, the Singapore Institute of Technology, the University of Technology and Design Singapore, and the Singapore University of Social Sciences.
Spanish
Doctoral degree is regulated by Royal Decree in Spanish 99/2011 from academic year 2014/2015. They are awarded by the university on behalf of the King, and the diploma has the power of public documents. The Ministry of Science created the National Registry of Theses called TESEO.
All doctoral programs are researching. It takes at least three years of study, in one stage:
- The study period is 3 years (or more). Extensions can be requested for up to 5 years. Students should write their thesis presenting new discoveries or original contributions to science. If approved by him or "director of his thesis (or director)", this study will be presented to a panel of 5 leading scholars. Doctors who attend public presentations are allowed to challenge candidates with questions on their research. If approved, she will receive a doctorate. Four signs can be given: Unsatisfactory, Passed, Satisfactory, and Very Good. "Cum laude" (with all honor, in Latin) denominations can be added to the Excellent if all five members of the tribunal agree.
A doctorate is required to apply to a long-term teaching position at the university.
The doctor's social position in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Ph.D. holders, Grandees and Dukes can sit and cover their heads before the King. All holders of the Doctor's Degree are recognized on a reciprocal basis in Germany and Spain ("Treaty of Bonn 14 November 1994").
United Kingdom
Reception
University admits applicants to Ph.D. programs on a case by case basis; Depending on the university, admissions usually depend on prospective students who have completed a bachelor's degree with at least a top second-grade degree or a postgraduate master's degree but the requirements may vary.
In the case of the University of Oxford, for example, "The only important condition to be accepted... is evidence of previous academic excellence, and potential for the future." Some universities in England (eg, Oxford) abbreviate the title of Doctor of Philosophy as "DPhil", while most use the abbreviation "PhD"; this in all other equivalent terms. Generally, the first students are accepted into the MPhil or MRes program and may transfer to a Ph.D. regulation after satisfactory progress, this is sometimes referred to as the status of APG (Advanced Postgraduate). This is usually done after one or two years and the research done can be calculated for a Ph.D. degree. If a student fails to make satisfactory progress, he or she may be offered the opportunity to write and apply for an MPhil degree as happened at King's College London and University of Manchester. In many universities, MPhil is also offered as a stand-alone research degree.
Ph.D. students from countries outside the EU/EFTA region are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Department of Foreign Affairs for specific courses in medicine, mathematics, engineering, and material science. This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about foreign terrorism and arms proliferation.
Funding
In the UK, funding for Ph.D. students are sometimes provided by government-funded Research Council or European Social Funds, usually in the form of free, non-tax scholarships consisting of tuition fees along with allowance. Tuition fees are charged at different levels for "Home/EU" and "Overseas" students, generally Ã,  £ 3,000-Ã,  £ 6,000 per year for the previous and Ã, £ 9,000-14,500 for the latter (which includes EU residents who have not typically lived in the EEA for the last three years), although this could rise to more than £ 16,000 in elite institutions. Higher fees are often charged for laboratory-based degree.
His wages are around £ 13,000 per year for three years, (sometimes higher with £ 2,000-3,000 in London), whether or not the degree continues for longer (within the usual four-year span). This implies that the fourth year of Ph.D. work is often unfunded. A small number of scholarly scholarships are sometimes paid at a higher rate - for example, in London, Cancer Research UK, ICR and Wellcome Trust salary rates start around Ã, £ 19,000 and progress every year up to about Ã,  £ 23,000 a year; free national tax and insurance amount. The Research Council funds are sometimes 'allocated' to specific departments or research groups, which then allocate them to selected students, although in practice they are generally expected to comply with the usual minimum entry requirements (usually first degree with honors second grade, a postgraduate master's degree is usually counted as raising a first-degree class by a division for this purpose). The availability of funding in many disciplines (especially humanities, social studies, and pure science subjects) means that in practice only those with the best research, reference, and background proposals are likely to be awarded a scholarship. The ESRC (Economic and Social Sciences Research Council) explicitly states that a minimum 2.1 (or 2.2 plus an additional master's degree) is required - no additional marks are given for students with first-class honors or differences at master's level. Since 2002, there has been a step by the research council to fund an interdisciplinary doctoral center that focuses resources on fewer quality centers.
Many students who do not receive external funding may choose to take a part-time degree, thus reducing tuition fees, as well as creating free time to earn money for subsistence. Students may also take part in study guidance, work as research assistants, or (sometimes) give lectures, at the usual level Ã, £ 12-14 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or as the sole means of funding.
Done
There is usually a preliminary assessment to remain in the program and the thesis is delivered at the end of the three to four year program. These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students. With a special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended to four additional years, for a total of seven, but this is rare. For full-time Ph.D.s, the 4-year time limit has now been fixed and students must apply for an extension to submit the thesis past this point. Since the early 1990s, the UK funding board has adopted a punitive department policy in which a large proportion of students fail to submit their thesis within four years of achieving student-PhD status (or equivalent pro-term) by reducing the number of places funded in the following years. Inadvertently, this leads to significant pressure on the candidate to minimize the scope of the project with a view on the submission of the thesis, regardless of quality, and dampen the time spent on activities that would otherwise have far more impact on community research (eg, high-volume publications impacts, seminars, workshops). In addition, supervisory staff are encouraged in the advancement of their careers to ensure that Ph.D. students under their supervision completed projects in three of the four years that the program was allowed to cover. These issues contribute to the overall difference between the supervisor and the Ph.D. candidates in the priorities they set for the quality and impact of the research contained in a Ph.D. project, former profitable Ph.D. fast projects over several students and the latter supporting a larger scope for ambitious projects, training, and their own impact.
Recently there has been an increase in the number of Ph.D. Integrated. programs available, such as at the University of Southampton. These courses include the Master of Research (MRes) in the first year, which consists of taught components as well as laboratory project rotations. Ph.D. should be completed within the next 3 years. Because this includes the MRes all deadlines and time frames are submitted to encourage the completion of MRes and Ph.D. within 4 years of commencement. These programs are designed to provide students with a greater range of skills than a Ph.D. standards, and for universities, they are a means of obtaining additional expenses a year from public sources.
Other doctoral degrees
In the UK, Ph.D. degrees differ from other doctors, especially higher doctors like D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) or D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), which may be awarded upon the recommendation of the examining committee on the basis of a substantial portfolio of proposed (and usually published) research. However, some universities in Britain still maintain the option of submitting a thesis for the award of a higher doctorate.
Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorate (D.Prof or ProfD), which is the same level as Ph.D.s but more specific in its field. It tends not only academically, but incorporates academic research, component taught and professional qualifications. (D.Ed.Psych), occupational psychology (D.Occ Psych.) Clinical Psychology (D. Clinic Psych.), Health Psychology (D.Ed.Psych), psychology of education (D.Ed.Psych) DHealthPsy), social work (DSW), nursing (DNP), public administration (DPA), business administration (DBA), and music (DMA). It typically has a more formal teaching component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000-60,000 word thesis component, which together formally is considered equivalent to a Ph.D. degree.
United States
In the United States, Ph.D. degree is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most fields of study. There are 282 universities in the United States awarding Ph.D. degrees, and universities vary greatly in their entry criteria, as well as the firmness of their academic programs.
Requirements
US students typically undergo a series of three phases in their course of work towards a Ph.D. degree. The first phase consists of courses in the field of student study and takes one to three years to complete. This is often followed by a preliminary examination, a comprehensive examination, or a series of cumulative examinations where the emphasis is on the breadth of the depth of knowledge. Students are often then required to pass oral and written examinations in the field of specialization in the discipline, and here, the depth of the dit
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