- This article concerns modern standard Chinese. For the grammars of other forms of Chinese, see their respective articles via links on Chinese language and varieties of Chinese.
The grammar of Standard Chinese shares many features with other varieties of Chinese. The language almost entirely lacks inflection, so that words typically have only one grammatical form. Categories such as number (singular or plural) and verb tense are frequently not expressed by any grammatical means, although there are several particles that serve to express verbal aspect, and to some extent mood.
The basic word order is subject-verb-object (SVO). Otherwise, Chinese is chiefly a head-last language, meaning that modifiers precede the words they modify - in a noun phrase, for example, the head noun comes last, and all modifiers, including relative clauses, come in front of it. (This phenomenon is more typically found in SOV languages like Turkish and Japanese.)
Chinese frequently uses serial verb constructions, which involve two or more verbs or verb phrases in sequence. Chinese prepositions behave similarly to serialized verbs in some respects (several of the common prepositions can also be used as full verbs), and they are often referred to as coverbs. There are also location markers, placed after a noun, and hence often called postpositions; these are often used in combination with a coverb. Predicate adjectives are normally used without a copular verb ("to be"), and can thus be regarded as a type of verb.
As in many east Asian languages, classifiers or measure words are required when using numerals (and sometimes other words such as demonstratives) with nouns. There are many different classifiers in the language, and each countable noun generally has a particular classifier associated with it. Informally, however, it is often acceptable to use the general classifier ? [?] ge in place of other specific classifiers.
Examples given in this article use simplified Chinese characters (with the traditional characters following in brackets if they differ) and standard pinyin Romanization.
Video Chinese grammar
Word formation
In Chinese, the concept of words and the boundaries between them is not always transparent, and the Chinese script does not use spaces between words. Grammatically, some strings of characters behave as single words in some contexts, but are separable in others. Many English intransitive verbs are translated by verb+noun compounds, such as ?? tiàow? ("to dance", literally "to jump a dance"); such items may be regarded as single lexical words, although the two parts can become separated by (for example) aspect markers, and in fact they generally behave grammatically as a verb plus an object. Sometimes the behavior of such compounds is anomalous, however; for instance ?? [??] gu?nx?n ("to be concerned about") behaves as an inseparable word when the perfective particle le is attached, although it is separable in the phrase ???? [????] gu?n shénme x?n ("to be concerned about what").
Chinese morphemes (minimum units of meaning) are mostly monosyllabic. Syllables (and thus morphemes in most cases) are represented as a rule by single characters. Some words consist of single syllables, but many words are formed by compounding two (or sometimes more) monosyllabic morphemes (which may be either free or bound - that is, they may or may not also be able to stand independently). Most two-syllable compound nouns have the head on the right, while in compound verbs the head is usually on the left. Loanwords from other languages may be polysyllabic; they are usually written using selected pre-existing characters that have the right phonetic values, for example, ?? [??] sh?f? ("sofa") is written with the characters ? sh? (originally "sand") and ?[?] f? (originally "to become/issue"). Native disyllabic morphemes such as ?? zhizhu ("spider") have consonant alliteration.
Many monosyllabic words have alternative disyllabic forms with virtually the same meaning, such as ?? dàsuàn ("garlic", literally "big garlic") for ? suàn ("garlic"). Many disyllabic nouns are produced by adding the suffix ? zi (original meaning: "child") to a monosyllabic word or morpheme. There is a strong tendency for monosyllables to be avoided in certain positions (for example, a disyllabic verb will not normally be followed by a monosyllabic object) - this may be connected with the preferred metrical structure of the language.
Reduplication
A common feature in Chinese is reduplication, where a syllable or word is repeated to produce a modified meaning. This can happen with:
- classifiers, to produce a phrase meaning "all", for example, ???? y? zuò-zuò sh?n "all the mountains" (where ordinarily zuò is the classifier used in a phrase denoting a specific number of mountains);
- syllables in some informal words denoting family relations, for example ?? [??] m?ma "mother", ?? dìdi "younger brother";
- some adjectives, to add emphasis, for example, ?? hóng-hóng "so red" (from ? hóng "red"). This is most common with monosyllabic adjectives, but can also occur with some disyllabic ones, in some cases on the pattern ???? sh?-shu-f?-f? (from ?? sh?fu "comfortable"), and in others on the pattern ????[????] b?ngliáng-b?ngliáng (from ??[??] b?ngliáng "ice-cool") (????[????] is also commonly used);
- many verbs, to mark the delimitative aspect ("to do something for a little bit") or for general emphasis - see under Aspects, below;
- certain other single-syllable words and morphemes, as in ?? x?ngx?ng "(distant) star, speck" (from ? x?ng "star"), ?? chángcháng "often".
Maps Chinese grammar
Sentence structure
Chinese (like English) is classified as an SVO (subject-verb-object) language, because transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb. For example:
? ? ? ?
He drink alcohol. (He drinks alcohol.)
Chinese can also be considered a topic-prominent language: there is a strong preference for sentences that begin with the theme (often "given", or "old", information) and end with the rheme ("new" information). Certain modifications of the basic subject-verb-object order are permissible and may serve to achieve topic-prominence. In particular, a direct (or sometimes indirect) object may be moved to the start of the clause (topicalization). It is also possible for an object to be moved to a position in front of the verb, for emphasis.
Another type of sentence is what has been called an ergative structure, where the apparent subject of the verb can move to object position; the empty subject position is then often occupied by an expression of location (compare locative inversion in English). This structure is typical of the verb ? y?u (meaning "there is/are"; in other contexts the same verb means "have"), but it can also be used with many other verbs, generally denoting position, appearance or disappearance. An example:
?? ? ?? ? ? ? ? [???(?)??????]
Courtyard-in park one [CLASSIFIER] vehicle. (In the courtyard is parked a vehicle.)
Chinese is also to some degree a pro-drop or null-subject language, meaning that the subject can be omitted from a clause if it can be inferred from the context. In the following example, the subject of the verbs for "hike" and "camp" is left to be inferred (it may be "we", "I", "you", "she", etc.)
?? ? ? ,?? ? ? ? [????,?????]
Today climb mountain, tomorrow outdoors camp. (Today hike up mountains, tomorrow camp outdoors.)
In the next example the subject is omitted and the object is topicalized by being moved into subject position, to form a passive-type sentence. (For passive sentences with a marker such as ? bèi, see Passive below.)
? ? ? ? ?[????]
Food make complete LE. (The food has been made, i.e. the food is ready.)
Adverbs and adverbial phrases that modify the verb typically come after the subject but before the verb, although other positions are sometimes possible; see Adverbs and adverbials. For constructions that involve more than one verb or verb phrase in sequence, see Serial verb constructions. For sentences consisting of more than one clause, see Conjunctions.
Objects
Some verbs can take both an indirect object and a direct object. Indirect normally precedes direct, as in English:
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?[????????]
I gave her six books.
With many verbs, however, the indirect object may alternatively be preceded by prepositional ? [?] g?i; in that case it may either precede or follow the direct object. (Compare the similar use of to or for in English.)
In certain situations a direct object may be preceded by the accusative marker ? b?. This generally denotes an action that results in a change of state in the object. For further details of this, see b? construction. Such a b? phrase no longer occupies the normal direct object position, but moves in front of the verb. Compare:
? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ? [?????????]
I broke a plate.? ? ?? ? ? ? ?[????????]
I BA-plate broke.
The meanings of the above two sentences are similar, but the second one (with b?) may be considered to place more emphasis on what happened to the object; it may also indicate definiteness ("the plate" rather than "a plate"). Certain other markers can be used in a similar way to b?, such as ? [?] ji?ng (in formal language) and ? ná (colloquial).
Some verbs can apparently take two direct objects, which may be called an "inner" and an "outer" object. These cannot both follow the verb - typically the outer object will be placed at the start of the sentence (topicalized) or introduced via the b? construction. For example:
? ? ?? ? ? ? ? [????????]
I BA-tangerine peeled skin ("I peeled the tangerine.")
Here pí ("skin") is the inner object, and júzi ("tangerine") is introduced via the b? construction as the outer object. (A more common way to express this, however, would be w? b? júzi pí b? le "I BA tangerine's skin peeled", or w? b? le júzi pí "I peeled tangerine's skin".)
Plurals
Chinese nouns and other parts of speech are not generally marked for number, meaning that plural forms are mostly the same as the singular. However, there is a plural marker ? [?] men, which has limited usage. It is used with personal pronouns, as in ?? [??] w?men, meaning "we" or "us" (from ? w?, "I, me"), and can be used with nouns representing humans, most commonly those with two syllables, like in ??? [???] péngyoumén "friends" (from ?? péngyou "friend"). Its use in such cases is optional. It is never used when the noun has indefinite reference, or when it is qualified by a numeral.
The demonstrative pronouns ? [?] zhè "this" and ? nà "that" may be optionally pluralized by the addition of ? xi?, making ?? [??] zhèxi? "these" and ?? nàxi? "those".
Noun phrases
The head noun of a noun phrase comes at the end of the phrase; this means that everything that modifies the noun comes before it. This includes attributive adjectives, determiners, quantifiers, possessives, and relative clauses.
Chinese does not have articles as such; a noun may stand alone to represent what in English would be expressed as "the ..." or "a(n) ...". However the word ? y? "one", followed by the appropriate classifier, may be used in some cases where English would have "a(n)". It is also possible, with many classifiers, to omit the y? and leave the classifier on its own at the start of the noun phrase.
The demonstratives are ? [?] zhè "this", and ? nà "that". When used before a noun, these are often followed by an appropriate classifier (for discussion of classifiers, see Classifiers below and the article Chinese classifiers). However this use of classifiers is optional. When a noun is preceded by a numeral (or a demonstrative followed by a numeral), the use of a classifier or measure word is in most cases considered mandatory. (This does not apply to nouns that function as measure words themselves; this includes many units of measurement and currency.)
The plural marker ? xi? ("some, several"; also used to pluralize the demonstratives) is used without a classifier. However ? [?] j? "some, several, how many" takes a classifier.
For adjectives in noun phrases, see Adjectives below. For noun phrases with pronouns rather than nouns as the head, see Pronouns below.
Possessives are formed by adding ? de (the same particle that is used after relative clauses and sometimes after adjectives) after the noun, noun phrase or pronoun that denotes the possessor.
Relative clauses
Chinese relative clauses, like other noun modifiers, precede the noun they modify. Like possessives and some adjectives, they are marked with the final particle ? de. A free relative clause is produced if the modified noun following the de is omitted. A relative clause usually comes after any determiner phrase (such as a numeral and classifier), although for emphasis it may come before.
There is usually no relative pronoun in the relative clause. Instead, a gap is left in subject or object position, as appropriate. If there are two gaps (the additional gap being created by pro-dropping), ambiguity may arise. For example, ?? ch? de may mean "(those) who eat" or "(that) which is eaten" (when used alone it usually means "things to eat").
If the relative item is governed by a preposition in the relative clause, then it is denoted by a pronoun (e.g. ?? tì t? "for him", to mean "for whom"), or else the whole prepositional phrase is omitted, the preposition then being implicitly understood.
For example sentences, see Relative clause -> Mandarin.
Classifiers
Chinese nouns require classifiers (also termed measure words, in Chinese ??[??] liàngcí) in order to be counted. That is, when specifying the amount of a countable noun, a classifier must be inserted, and the classifier has to agree with the noun. Hence one must say ??? [???] li?ng tóu niú "two head of cattle" for "two cows", with tóu being the unit of measurement, or measure word. (This phenomenon is common in East Asian languages. In English, some words, as in the cited example of "cattle", are often paired with a noun used much like the Chinese measure word. Bottle in "two bottles of wine" or piece in "three pieces of paper" are further examples.) However, certain nouns (representing units of measurement, time or currency) are themselves classifiers, and can therefore be counted directly.
Classifiers are generally associated with certain groups of nouns related by meaning, such as ? [?] tiáo for long, thin objects or animals (e.g. ropes, snakes or fish), ? b? for objects with handles (e.g. knives, umbrellas), ? [?] zh?ng for flat objects that can be counted as sheets in English (photographs, fur, etc.). While there are dozens, if not hundreds, of classifiers that exist, which must be memorized individually for each noun, a majority of words use the general classifier ? [?] gè. Many nouns that are associated with other classifiers can also use gè if the speaker chooses. The classifiers for many nouns appear arbitrary. The noun ?? zhu?zi "table" is a zh?ng noun probably because a table-top is sheet-like, while ?? y?zi "chair" is a b? noun probably a chair is moved by lifting something like a handle, although another word for chair or stool, ?? dèngzi, is a gè noun.
Classifiers are also used (optionally) after demonstratives, and in certain other situations. See Noun phrases above, and the article Chinese classifier.
Numerals
Pronouns
The Chinese personal pronouns are ? w? "I, me", ? [?/?] n? "you", and ?/?/? t? "he (him)/she (her)/it". Plurals are formed by adding ? [?] men: ?? [??] w?men "we, us", ?? [??] n?men "you", ??/??/?? [??/??/??] t?men "they, them". There is also a formal, polite word for singular "you": ? nín. The alternative "inclusive" word for "we/us", ? zán or ?? [??] zá(n)men, referring specifically to the two people "you and I", is not widely used. The third-person pronouns are not often used for inanimates (instead, demonstratives are preferred).
Possessives are formed with ? de, as with nouns (?? w?de "my, mine", ??? [???] w?mende "our(s)", etc.). The de may be omitted in phrases denoting inalienable possession, such as ??? [???] w? m?ma "my mom".
The demonstrative pronouns are ? [?] zhè "this" and ? nà "that" (with alternative colloquial pronunciations zhèi and nèi). They are optionally pluralized by the addition of ? xi?. There is a reflexive pronoun ?? zìj? meaning "oneself, myself, etc.", which can stand alone as an object or a possessive, or may follow a personal pronoun for emphasis. The reciprocal pronoun "each other" can be translated by ?? b?c?, usually in adverb position (where an alternative is ?? hùxi?ng "mutually").
Adjectives
Adjectives can be used attributively, before a noun. The relative marker ? de (also used after possessives and relative clauses) may be added after the adjective, but this is not always required; "black horse" may be either ?? [??] h?i m? or ??? [???] h?i de m?. When multiple adjectives are used, the order "quality/size - shape - color" is followed, although this is not necessary when each adjective is made into a separate phrase with the addition of de.
Gradable adjectives can be modified by words meaning "very", etc.; such modifying adverbs normally precede the adjective, although some, such as ?? [??] jíle "extremely", come after it.
When adjectives co-occur with classifiers, they normally follow the classifier. However, with most common classifiers, when the number is "one", it is also possible to place adjectives like "big" and "small" before the classifier, for emphasis: ????? [?????] yí-dà-ge x?gu? "one big [CLASSIFIER] watermelon".
Adjectives can also be used predicatively. In this case they behave more like verbs; there is no need for a copular verb in sentences like "he is happy" in Chinese; one may say simply ??? [???] t? g?oxìng, literally "he happy", where the adjective may be interpreted as a verb meaning "is happy". In such sentences it is common for the adjective to be modified by a word meaning "very" or the like; in fact the word ? h?n ("very") is often used in such cases (with gradable adjectives) even without carrying the meaning of "very".
It is nonetheless possible for a copula to be used in such sentences, to emphasize the adjective: ????? [?????] t? shì g?oxìng le, "he is now truly happy" (here shì is the copula meaning "is", and le is the inceptive marker discussed below). This is similar to the cleft sentence construction. Sentences can also be formed in which an adjective followed by ? de stands as the complement of the copula.
Adverbs and adverbials
Adverbs and adverbial phrases normally come in a position before the verb, but after the subject of the verb. In sentences with auxiliary verbs, the adverb usually precedes the auxiliary verb as well as the main verb. Some adverbs of time and attitude ("every day", "perhaps", etc.) may be moved to the start of the clause, to modify the clause as a whole. However, some adverbs cannot be moved in this way (these include ? cháng, ?? chángcháng or ?? [??] j?ngcháng "often", ? d?u "all", ? jiù "then", ? yòu "again").
Adverbs of manner can be formed from adjectives using the clitic ? de (not the same character as the de used to mark possessives and relative clauses). It is generally possible to move these adverbs to the start of the clause, although in some cases this may sound awkward, unless there is a qualifier such as ? h?n ("very") and a pause after the adverb.
Some verbs take a prepositional phrase following the verb (and its direct object). These are generally obligatory constituents, such that the sentence would not make sense if they were omitted. For example:
? ? ? ? ?? ? [???????]
"put the book on the table"
There are also certain adverbial "stative complements" which follow the verb, such as ? dé +adjective (meaning "-ly"; note that this is a different character again from the two types of de previously mentioned), or ?? h?o le ("complete"). It is not generally possible for a single verb to be followed by both an object and an adverbial complement of this type (although there are exceptions in cases where the complement expresses duration, frequency or goal). To express both, the verb may be repeated (in a special kind of serial verb construction), the first instance taking an object, the second taking the complement. Aspect markers can then appear only on the second instance of the verb.
The typical Chinese word order "XVO", where an oblique complement such as a locative prepositional phrase precedes the verb, while a direct object comes after the verb, is very rare cross-linguistically; in fact, it is only in varieties of Chinese that this is attested as the typical ordering.
Locative phrases
Expressions of location in Chinese may include a preposition (before the noun), a postposition (after the noun), both, or neither. (Chinese prepositions are commonly known as coverbs - see further below.) The postpositions, which include ? shàng "up, on", ? xià "down, under", ? [?] l? "in, within", ? nèi "inside" and ? wài "outside", may also be called locative particles.
In the following examples locative phrases are formed from a noun plus a locative particle:
?? ? [???]
"table-on" = on the table?? ? [???]
"house-in" = in the house
The most common preposition of location is ? zài "at, on, in". With certain nouns that inherently denote a specific location, including nearly all place names, a locative phrase can be formed with zài together with the noun:
? ?? [???]
"in America"
However other types of noun still require a locative particle (postposition) in addition to zài:
? ?? ? [????]
"in newspaper-on" = in the newspaper
If a noun is modified so as to denote a specific location (as in "this ..."), then it may form locative phrases without any locative particle. Also, some nouns, like ? ji? home and ?? [??] xuéxiào "school", which can be understood to refer to a specific place, may optionally omit the locative particle. Words like ?? shàngmiàn "top" can function as specific-location nouns (like in ??? zài shàngmiàn "on top"), but can also take the role of locative particle, not necessarily with analogous meaning (one can say ????? [?????] zài bàozh? shàngmiàn "in newspaper-top", meaning "in the newspaper" or "on the newspaper").
In certain circumstances zài can be omitted from the locative expression. Grammatically, a noun or noun phrase followed by a locative particle is still a noun phrase (since, for instance, zhu?zi shàng can be regarded as short for zhu?zi shàngmiàn, meaning something like "the table's top"). Consequently, the locative expression without zài can be used in places where a noun phrase would be expected - for instance, as a modifier of another noun (using ? de; see above), or as the object of a different preposition, such as ? cóng "from". The version with zài, on the other hand, plays an adverbial role. However, zài is usually omitted when the locative expression begins a sentence with the ergative structure (see above), where the expression, though having an adverbial function, can be seen as filling the subject (noun) slot in the sentence.
The word ? zài, like certain other prepositions (coverbs), can also be used as a verb. A locative expression can therefore appear as a predicate without the need for any additional copula. For example, ???? [????] t? zài xuéxiào "he at school", i.e. "he is at school".
Comparatives and superlatives
Comparative sentences are commonly expressed simply by inserting the standard of comparison, preceded by ? b? "than". The adjective itself is not modified. The b? phrase is an adverbial, and has a fixed position before the verb. (See also Negation.)
If there is no standard of comparison (than phrase), then the adjective can be marked as comparative by a preceding adverb ?? [??] b?jiào (or just ? [?] jiào), meaning "more". Similarly, superlatives can be expressed using the adverb ? zuì "most", which precedes a predicate (verb or adjective).
Adverbial phrases meaning "like (someone/something)" or "as (someone/something)" can be formed using ? g?n, ? tóng or ? xiàng before the noun phrase, and ?? [??] y?yàng or ?? [??] nàyàng after it.
The construction ?...?... yuè ... yuè ... can be used to translate statements of the type "the more ..., the more ...".
Copula
The Chinese copular verb (the equivalent of English "to be" and all its forms - "am", "is", "are", "was", "were") is ? shì. However, it is normally only used when its complement is a noun or noun phrase. As noted above, predicate adjectives function as verbs themselves, as does the locative preposition ? zài, so in sentences where the predicate is an adjectival or locative phrase, shì is not required.
For another use of shì (the shì ... (de) construction) see the section on cleft sentences. The English existential phrase "there is" ("there are", etc.) is translated using the verb ? y?u, which is otherwise used to mean "have" (denoting possession).
Aspects
Chinese does not have grammatical markers of tense. The time at which action is conceived as taking place (past, present, future) can be indicated by expressions of time ("yesterday", "now", etc.) or may simply be inferred from the context. However, Chinese does have markers of aspect, which is a feature of grammar that gives information about the temporal flow of events. There are two aspect markers that are especially commonly used with past events: the perfective ? le and the experiential ? [?] guo. (Some authors, however, do not regard guo, or the zhe described below, as markers of aspect.) Both le and guo immediately follow the verb. (There is also a sentence-final particle le, which serves a somewhat different purpose.)
The perfective le presents the viewpoint of "an event in its entirety". It is sometimes considered to be a past tense marker, although it can also be used with future events, given appropriate context. Some examples of its use:
? ? ? ? ? [?????]
I became a soldier (an event that has taken place or took place at a particular time).? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [????????]
He watched three ballgames (likely to be used in a time-delimited context such as "today" or "last week").
The above may be compared with the following examples with guo, and with the examples with sentence-final le given under Particles.
The experiential guo "ascribes to a subject the property of having experienced the event".
? ? ? ? ? [?????]
I once became a soldier (implying that the speaker no longer is a soldier).? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [????????]
He has watched three ballgames (up to now).
There are also two imperfective aspect markers, ?? zhèngzài (or just ? zài), and ? [?] zhe, which denote ongoing actions or states. The first of these precedes the verb, and is usually used for ongoing actions or dynamic events - it may be translated as "(be) in the process of (-ing)" or "(be) in the middle of (-ing)". The second follows the verb, and is used mostly for static situations.
? (? )? ? ? ? [?(?)????]
I'm hanging pictures up.? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [????????]
A picture's hanging on the wall.
Both markers may occur in the same clause, however, e.g. ????(?)?? [????(?)??] t? zhèngzai d? (zhe) diànhuà "He is in the middle of telephoning someone".
The delimitative aspect denotes an action that goes on only for some time, "doing something 'a little bit'". This can be expressed by reduplication of a monosyllabic verb, like the verb ? z?u ("walk") in the following sentence:
? ? ? ? ? ? ? [???????]
I to park walk-walk, i.e. "I'm going for a walk in the park."
An alternative construction is reduplication with insertion of ? y? ("one"): ??? z?u yi z?u (which might be translated as "walk a little walk"). A further possibility is reduplication followed by ? kàn ("to see"); this emphasizes the "testing" nature of the action. (If the verb has an object, this kàn follows the object.)
Some compound verbs (restrictive-resultative and coordinate compounds) can also be reduplicated, on the pattern ???? [????] t?olùn-t?olùn, from the verb ?? [??] t?olùn ("discuss"). Other compounds may be reduplicated, but for general emphasis rather than delimitative aspect. In compounds that are in fact verb-object combinations, like ?? tiào w? "dance", delimitative aspect can be marked by reduplicating the first syllable: ??? tiào-tiào w? (and ? kàn may be added after this).
Passive
As mentioned above, the fact that a verb is intended to be understood in the passive voice is not always marked in Chinese. It may be marked, however, using the passive marker ? bèi, followed by the agent (like the English "by"), although bèi may appear alone, if the agent is not to be specified. Certain causative markers can replace bèi, such as g?i, jiào and ràng (see Other cases in the serial verb section), although of these, only g?i can appear alone without a specified agent. The construction with a passive marker is normally used only when there is a sense of misfortune or adversity. The passive marker (and agent) occupy the typical adverbial position before the verb. (See also Negation.) Some examples:
?? ? ? ? ? ? [???????]
We by him scolded (We were scolded by him).? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [????????]
He by me beaten (up) (He was beaten up by me).
Negation
The most commonly used negating element is ? bù (pronounced with second tone when followed by a fourth tone). This can be placed before a verb, preposition or adverb to negate it. For example: ???? [????] w? bù ch? j? (literally: I not eat chicken), "I don't eat chicken." (For the double-verb negative construction with bù, see Complement of result, below.) However, the verb ? y?u, which can mean either "have" (denoting possession) or "there is/are" in existential clauses, is negated using ? méi, to produce ?? méiy?u.
For negation of a verb intended to denote a completed event, ? méi or ?? méiy?u is used instead of ? bù (and the aspect marker ? le is then omitted). Also, méi(y?u) is used to negate verbs that take the aspect marker ? [?] guo; in this case the aspect marker is not omitted.
In coverb constructions, the negator may come before the coverb (preposition) or before the full verb, the latter being more emphatic. In constructions with a passive marker, the negator precedes that marker; similarly, in comparative constructions, the negator precedes the b? phrase (unless the verb is further qualified by ? gèng "even more", in which case the negator may follow the gèng to produce the meaning "even less").
The negator ? bié precedes the verb in negative commands and negative requests ("don't ...", "please don't ...").
The negator ? wèi means "not yet". Other items used as negating elements in certain compound words include ? [?] wú and ? f?i.
A double negative makes a positive, as in sentences like ??????? [???????] w? bù shì bù x?hu?n t? "It's not that I don't like her." (For this use of ? shì, see Cleft sentences below.)
Questions
In wh-questions in Chinese, the question word is not fronted, that is, it stays in the position in the sentence that would be occupied by the item being asked about. For example, ????? [?????] n? shu? shé(n)me ("What did you say?"), literally "you say what" - the word shénme ("what, which") remains here in the object position after the verb. Other interrogative words include ? [?] shuí, shéi ("who"), ? n? ("which"; used with a classifier and noun or with ? xi? and noun to mean "which ones" - the noun may be omitted if understood), ?? du?sh?o ("how much/many") (also ? [?] j? "how many", used when the number is quite small, and followed by a classifier), ?? [??] n?r or ?? [??] n?l? ("where"), ???? [????] shénme shíhòu ("when"), ??(?) [??(?)] z?nme(yang) ("how"), and ??? [???] wèishé(n)me or ?? [??] gànmá ("why"). An informal term for ?? [??] shénme is ? shá.
Disjunctive questions can be made using the word ?? [??] háishì between the options, like English "or" (this differs from the word for "or" in statements, which is ?? huòzh?).
Yes-no questions can be formed using the sentence-final particle ? [?] ma (the word order is otherwise the same as in a statement). For example, ????? [?????] n? ch? j? ma? (you eat chicken MA) "Do you eat chicken?"
An alternative is the A-not-A construction, using phrases like ??? ch? bu ch? ("eat or not eat") (either the verb or the whole verb phrase may be repeated after the negator bù; it is also possible to place bù after the verb phrase and omit the repetition entirely). With two-syllable verbs, sometimes only the first syllable is repeated: ???? [????] x?-bu-x?hu?n ("like or not like"), from ?? [??] x?hu?n ("like"). It is also possible to use the A-not-A construction with prepositions (coverbs) and phrases headed by them, as with full verbs.
The negator ? [?] méi can be used rather than bù in the A-not-A construction when referring to a completed event, but if it occurs at the end of the sentence (i.e. the repetition is omitted) the full form ?? [??] méiy?u must appear.
For answering yes-no questions, Chinese has words that may be used like the English "yes" and "no" - ? [?] duì or ?? shì de for "yes"; ? bù for "no" - but these are not often used for this purpose; it is more common to repeat the verb or verb phrase (or entire sentence), negating it if applicable.
Imperatives
Second-person imperative sentences are formed in the same way as statements, but like in English, the subject ("you") is often omitted.
Orders may be softened by preceding them with an element such as ? q?ng ("to ask", in this use equivalent to English "please"). See also Particles below. The sentence-final particle ? ba can be used to form first-person imperatives ("let's ...").
Serial verb constructions
Chinese makes frequent use of serial verb constructions, or verb stacking, where two or more verbs or verb phrases are concatenated together. This frequently involves either verbal complements appearing after the main verb, or coverb phrases appearing before the main verb, but other variations of the construction occur as well.
Auxiliaries
A main verb may be preceded by an auxiliary verb, as in English. Chinese auxiliaries include ? néng and ?? [??] nénggòu ("can"), ? [?] huì ("know how to"), ?? kéy? ("may"), ? g?n ("dare"), ? k?n ("be willing to"), ?? [??] y?ngg?i ("should"), ?? [??] bìx? ("must"), etc. The auxiliary normally follows an adverb, if present. In shortened sentences an auxiliary may be used without a main verb, analogously to English sentences such as "I can."
Verbal complements
The active verb of a sentence may be suffixed with a second verb, which usually indicates either the result of the first action, or the direction in which it took the subject. When such information is applicable, it is generally considered mandatory. The phenomenon is sometimes called double verbs.
Complement of result
A complement of result, or resultative complement (???? [????] jiégu? b?y?) is a verbal suffix which indicates the outcome, or possible outcome, of the action indicated by the main verb. In the following examples, the main verb is ? [?] t?ng ("to listen"), and the complement of result is ? d?ng ("to understand", "to know").
? ? [??]
Hear-understand, i.e. to understand (something you hear)
Since they indicate an absolute result, such double verbs necessarily represent a completed action, and are thus negated using ? [?] méi:
? ? ? [???]
To have not understood (something you hear)
The infix ? de is placed between the double verbs to indicate possibility or ability. (This is not possible with "restrictive" resultative compounds such as ?? jiésh?ng "reduce-save", i.e. "to save, economize".)
? ? ? [???]
To be able to understand (something you hear)
This is equivalent in meaning to ??? [???] néng t?ng d?ng, using the auxiliary ? néng, equivalent to "may" or "can" (but not in the sense of "know how to" or "have the skill to").
To negate the above construction, ? de is replaced by ? bù:
? ? ? [???]
To be unable to understand (something you hear)
With some verbs, the above construction (addition of bù and a particular complement of result) is the standard method of negation. In many cases the complement is li?o (represented by the same character, ?, as the perfective or modal particle le). This verb means "to finish", but when used as a complement for negation purposes it may merely indicate inability. For example: ??? shòu-bù-li?o ("to be unable to tolerate").
The complement of result is a highly productive and frequently used construction. Sometimes it develops into idiomatic phrases, as in ??? [???] è s? le (literally: hungry-till-die already, meaning "(to be) starving") and ??? [???] qì s? le (literally: mad-till-die already, meaning "(to be) extremely angry"). The phrases ???, ??? [???], and ??? [???] all use ? q? ("to rise up") as a complement of result, but their meanings (to look down upon, to apologize, and to be unable to afford, respectively) are not obviously related to that meaning. This is partially the result of metaphorical construction, where ??? literally means "to be unable to look up to" (i.e. look down on), and ??? [???] "to be unable to face (someone)".
Some more examples of resultative complements, used in complete sentences:
? ? ?? ? ? ? ? [????????]
literal: he OBJ-plate hit-break-PF.
He hit/dropped the plate, and it broke.
(double-verb where the second verb, "break", is a suffix to the first, and indicates what happens to the object as a result of the action.)? ? ?? ? ? ? ? ? [?????????]
literal: This movie I look-no-understand.
I can't understand this movie (even though I watched it.)
(double-verb as well, where the second verb, "understand", suffixes the first and clarifies the possibility and success of the relevant action.)
Complement of direction
A complement of direction, or directional complement (???? [????] q?xiàng b?y?) indicates the direction of an action involving movement. The simplest directional complements are ? qù ("to go") and ? [?] lái ("to come"), which may be added after a verb to indicate movement away from or towards the speaker, respectively. These may form compounds with other verbs that further specify the direction, such as ?? shàng qù ("to go up"), ?? [??] gùo lái ("to come over"), which may then be added to another verb, such as ? z?u ("to walk"), as in ??? [???] z?u gùo qù ("to walk over"). Another example, in a whole sentence:
? ? ? ? ? ? [??????]
literal: he walk-up-come-PF.
He walked up (towards me).
(directional suffixes indicating "up" and "towards".)
If the preceding verb has an object, the object may be placed either before or after the directional complement(s), or even between two directional complements (provided the second of these is not ? qù).
The structure with inserted de or bù (described above) is not normally used with this type of double verb, although there are exceptions, such as ???? [????] or ???? ("to be unable to get out of bed").
Coverbs
Chinese has a class of words, called coverbs, which in some respects resemble both verbs and prepositions. They appear with a following object (or complement), and generally denote relationships that would be expressed by prepositions (or postpositions) in other languages. However, they are often considered to be lexically verbs, and some of them can also function as full verbs. When a coverb phrase appears in a sentence together with a main verb phrase, the result is essentially a type of serial verb construction. The coverb phrase, being an adverbial, precedes the main verb in most cases. For instance:
literally: I help you find him
I will find him for you.
Here the main verb is zh?o ("find"), and the word b?ng is a coverb, which here corresponds to the English preposition "for", even though in other contexts it might be used as a full verb meaning "help".
literally: I sit aeroplane from Shanghai arrive Beijing go.
I'll go from Shanghai to Beijing by plane.
Here there are three coverbs: zuò ("by"), cóng ("from"), and dào ("to"). The words zuò and dào can also be verbs, meaning "sit" and "arrive (at)" respectively. However, cóng, like certain other coverbs, is not normally used as a full verb.
A very common coverb that can also be used as a main verb is ? zài, as described in the Locative phrases section above. Another example is ? g?i, which as a verb means "give", but as a preposition may mean "for", or "to" when marking an indirect object or in certain other expressions, such as ?????? [??????] w? g?i n? d? diànhuà (I to you strike telephone) "I'll give you a telephone call."
Because coverbs essentially function as prepositions, they can also be referred to simply as prepositions. In Chinese they are called ?? [??] jiè cí, a term which generally corresponds to "preposition" (or more generally, "adposition"). The situation is complicated somewhat by the fact that the location markers discussed above, which also have meanings similar to those of certain English prepositions (although in grammatical behavior they are more like nouns), are often called "postpositions".
Coverbs normally cannot take aspect markers, although some of them form fixed compounds together with such markers, such as ?? g?nzhe "with" (g?n "with" plus aspect marker zhe), ? ànzhe "according to", ?? yánzhe "along", and ?? wèile "for".
Other cases
Serial verb constructions can also consist of two consecutive verb phrases with parallel meaning, such as ????? [?????] h? k?f?i kàn bào "drink coffee read paper", i.e. "drink coffee and read the paper". Each verb may independently be negated or given the le aspect marker. If both verbs would have the same object, it is omitted the second time.
Consecutive verb phrases may also be used to indicate consecutive events. Use of the le aspect marker with the first verb may imply that this is the main verb of the sentence, the second verb phrase merely indicating the purpose. Use of this le with the second verb changes this emphasis, and may require a sentence-final le particle in addition. (On the other hand, the progressive aspect marker ? zài may be applied to the first verb, but not normally the second alone.) The word ? qù or ? [?] lái (verbs normally meaning "go" and "come") may be inserted between the two verb phrases, meaning "in order to".
For constructions with consecutive verb phrases containing the same verb, see under Adverbs. For immediate repetition of a verb, see Reduplication and Aspects.
Another case is the causative or pivotal construction. Here the object of one verb also serves as the subject of the following verb. The first verb may be something like ? g?i "allow" (meaning "give" in other contexts), ? [?] ràng "let", ? jiào or ? sh? "make, compel" (jiào also means "call"), ? [?] q?ng "invite", or ? lìng "command". Some of these (lìng, ràng, sh?) cannot take an aspect marker such as le when used in this construction. Sentences of this type often parallel the equivalent English pattern (except that English may insert the infinitive marker "to"). In the following example the construction is used twice:
? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ? [?????????]
He want me invite him drink beer, i.e. He wants me to treat him beer.
Particles
Chinese has a number of sentence-final particles - these are weak syllables, spoken with neutral tone, and placed at the end of the sentence to which they refer. They are often called modal particles (???? [????] y?qì zhùcí), as they serve chiefly to express grammatical mood, or how the sentence relates to reality and/or intent. They include:
- ? [?] ma, which changes a statement into a yes-no question
- ? ne, which expresses surprise, or produces a question "with expectation"
- ? ba, which serves as a tag question ("don't you think so?"), produces a suggestion ("let's"), or lessens certainty of a decision.
- ? a (also ? ya, ? wa, etc. depending on the preceding sound), which reduces forcefulness, particularly of an order or question. It can also be used to add positive connotation to certain phrases or inject uncertainty when responding to a question.
- ? [?] ou, which signals a friendly warning
- ? [?] zhe, which marks inchoative aspect (need for change of state) in imperative sentences (compare the imperfective aspect marker zhe in the section above)
- ? le, which marks a "currently relevant state"; see below. This precedes any other sentence-final particles, and can combine with ? a to produce ? la, and with ? [?] ou to produce ? [?] lou.
This sentence-final ? le should be distinguished from the verb suffix ? le discussed above under Aspects. The latter is described as a marker of perfective aspect, whereas the sentence-final particle is sometimes described as an inceptive or as a marker of perfect aspect. Some examples of its use:
? ? ? ? ? [?????]
I have no money, now. (I've gone broke.)? ? ? ? ? [?????]
I have become a soldier. (Compared with the previous example with post-verbal le, w? d?ng le b?ng, this emphasizes his present status as a soldier, rather than the event of becoming.)? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [????????]
He (has) watched three ballgames. (Compared with the previous examples with post-verbal le and guo, t? kàn le s?n ch?ng qiú sài and t? kàn guo s?n ch?ng qiú sài, this places the focus on the number three, and does not specify whether he is going to continue watching more games.)
The two uses of le may in fact be traced back to two entirely different words. The fact that they are now written the same way in Mandarin can cause ambiguity, particularly when the verb is not followed by an object. Consider the following sentence:
?? ? ? ! [????!] (Mom come LE.)
This le might be interpreted as either the suffixal perfective marker or the sentence-final perfect marker. In the former case it might mean "mother has come" (she has just arrived at the door, for example), while in the latter it might mean "mother is coming after all" (where she had previously said she would not be coming, but has just changed her decision). It is even possible for the two kinds of le to co-occur:
? ? ? ? ? ?[????]
He has eaten. (Without the first le, the sentence could again mean "he has eaten", or it could mean "he wants to eat now". Without the final le the sentence would be ungrammatical without appropriate context, as perfective le cannot appear in a semantically unbounded sentence.)
Cleft sentences
There is a construction in Chinese known as the shì ... (de) construction, which produces what may be called cleft sentences. The copula ? shì is placed before the element of the sentence which is to be emphasized, and the possessive particle ? de is placed at the end of the sentence (although this can be omitted). For example:
? ? ?? ? ? (?) [???????]
He SHI yesterday buy food (DE), i.e. It was yesterday that he bought food.
If an object, following the verb, is to be emphasized in this construction, the shì precedes the object, and the de comes after the verb, before the shì.
? ?? ? ? ? ? [???????]
He yesterday buy (DE) SHI vegetable, i.e. What he bought yesterday was vegetable.
Sentences with similar meaning can be produced using relative clauses (these may be called pseudo-cleft sentences), for example: zuóti?n shì t? m?i cài de shíji?n "yesterday is he buy food DE time", i.e. "yesterday was the time he bought food".
Conjunctions
Chinese has various conjunctions (??)[??] such as ? hé "and", ?? dànshì "but", ?? huòzh? "or", etc. However Chinese quite often uses no conjunction where English would have "and".
Two or more nouns may be joined together by the conjunctions ? hé "and" or ? huò "or"; for example ??? ("knife and fork"), ??? ("dog or cat").
Certain adverbs are often used as correlative conjunctions, where correlating words appear in each of the linked clauses, such as ?? ... ?? búdàn ... érqi? "not only ... (but) also", ?? ... ?? [??...??] su?rán ... háishì "although ... still", ?? ... ?? [??...??] y?nwèi ... su?y? "because ... therefore". Such connectors may appear at the start of a clause or before the verb phrase.
Similarly, words like ?? jìrán "since/in response to", ?? rúgu? or ?? ji?rú "if", ?? zh?yào "provided that" correlate with an adverb ? jiù ("then") or ? y? (literally "also") in the main clause, to form conditional sentences.
In some cases, the same word may be repeated when connecting items; these include ?...?... yòu ... yòu ... ("both ... and ..."), ??...??... y?bi?n ... y?bi?n ... ("... while ..."), and ?...?... yuè ... yuè ... ("the more ..., the more ...").
Conjunctions of time such as "when" may be translated with a construction that corresponds to something like "at the time (+relative clause)", where as usual, the Chinese relative clause comes before the noun ("time" in this case). For example:
? ? ? ? ? ?? , ... [???????...]
At I-return-home-DE time, i.e. "When I return(ed) home..."
Variants include ?...?? [?...??] d?ng ... y?qián ("before ...") and ?...?? [?...??] d?ng ... y?hòu ("after ...") (these do not use the relative marker de). In all of these cases the initial d?ng may be replaced by ? zài, or may be omitted. There are also similar constructions for conditionals: rúgu?/ji?rú/zh?yào ... de huà ("if ...") (where huà ? [?] literally means "narrative, story").
See also
- Classical Chinese grammar
- Cantonese grammar
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
- A Summary of Chinese Grammar
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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